Euclid's Elements Of Geometry - University Of Texas At Austin
EUCLID’S ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRYThe Greek text of J.L. Heiberg (1883–1885)from Euclidis Elementa, edidit et Latine interpretatus est I.L. Heiberg, in aedibusB.G. Teubneri, 1883–1885edited, and provided with a modern English translation, byRichard Fitzpatrick
First edition - 2007Revised and corrected - 2008ISBN 978-0-6151-7984-1
ContentsIntroduction4Book 15Book 249Book 369Book 4109Book 5129Book 6155Book 7193Book 8227Book 9253Book 10281Book 11423Book 12471Book 13505Greek-English Lexicon539
IntroductionEuclid’s Elements is by far the most famous mathematical work of classical antiquity, and also has the distinctionof being the world’s oldest continuously used mathematical textbook. Little is known about the author, beyondthe fact that he lived in Alexandria around 300 BCE. The main subjects of the work are geometry, proportion, andnumber theory.Most of the theorems appearing in the Elements were not discovered by Euclid himself, but were the work ofearlier Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras (and his school), Hippocrates of Chios, Theaetetus of Athens, andEudoxus of Cnidos. However, Euclid is generally credited with arranging these theorems in a logical manner, so as todemonstrate (admittedly, not always with the rigour demanded by modern mathematics) that they necessarily followfrom five simple axioms. Euclid is also credited with devising a number of particularly ingenious proofs of previouslydiscovered theorems: e.g., Theorem 48 in Book 1.The geometrical constructions employed in the Elements are restricted to those which can be achieved using astraight-rule and a compass. Furthermore, empirical proofs by means of measurement are strictly forbidden: i.e.,any comparison of two magnitudes is restricted to saying that the magnitudes are either equal, or that one is greaterthan the other.The Elements consists of thirteen books. Book 1 outlines the fundamental propositions of plane geometry, including the three cases in which triangles are congruent, various theorems involving parallel lines, the theorem regardingthe sum of the angles in a triangle, and the Pythagorean theorem. Book 2 is commonly said to deal with “geometricalgebra”, since most of the theorems contained within it have simple algebraic interpretations. Book 3 investigatescircles and their properties, and includes theorems on tangents and inscribed angles. Book 4 is concerned with regular polygons inscribed in, and circumscribed around, circles. Book 5 develops the arithmetic theory of proportion.Book 6 applies the theory of proportion to plane geometry, and contains theorems on similar figures. Book 7 dealswith elementary number theory: e.g., prime numbers, greatest common denominators, etc. Book 8 is concerned withgeometric series. Book 9 contains various applications of results in the previous two books, and includes theoremson the infinitude of prime numbers, as well as the sum of a geometric series. Book 10 attempts to classify incommensurable (i.e., irrational) magnitudes using the so-called “method of exhaustion”, an ancient precursor to integration.Book 11 deals with the fundamental propositions of three-dimensional geometry. Book 12 calculates the relativevolumes of cones, pyramids, cylinders, and spheres using the method of exhaustion. Finally, Book 13 investigates thefive so-called Platonic solids.This edition of Euclid’s Elements presents the definitive Greek text—i.e., that edited by J.L. Heiberg (1883–1885)—accompanied by a modern English translation, as well as a Greek-English lexicon. Neither the spuriousbooks 14 and 15, nor the extensive scholia which have been added to the Elements over the centuries, are included.The aim of the translation is to make the mathematical argument as clear and unambiguous as possible, whilst stilladhering closely to the meaning of the original Greek. Text within square parenthesis (in both Greek and English)indicates material identified by Heiberg as being later interpolations to the original text (some particularly obvious orunhelpful interpolations have been omitted altogether). Text within round parenthesis (in English) indicates materialwhich is implied, but not actually present, in the Greek text.My thanks to Mariusz Wodzicki (Berkeley) for typesetting advice, and to Sam Watson & Jonathan Fenno (U.Mississippi), and Gregory Wong (UCSD) for pointing out a number of errors in Book 1.4
ELEMENTS BOOK 1Fundamentals of Plane Geometry InvolvingStraight-Lines5
STOIQEIWN aþ.ELEMENTS BOOK 1VOroi.Definitionsαʹ. Σημεῖόν ἐστιν, οὗ μέρος οὐθέν.βʹ. Γραμμὴ δὲ μῆκος ἀπλατές.γʹ. Γραμμῆς δὲ πέρατα σημεῖα.δʹ. Εὐθεῖα γραμμή ἐστιν, ἥτις ἐξ ἴσου τοῖς ἐφ ἑαυτῆςσημείοις κεῖται.εʹ. Επιφάνεια δέ ἐστιν, ὃ μῆκος καὶ πλάτος μόνον ἔχει.ϛʹ. Επιφανείας δὲ πέρατα γραμμαί.ζʹ. Επίπεδος ἐπιφάνειά ἐστιν, ἥτις ἐξ ἴσου ταῖς ἐφ ἑαυτῆς εὐθείαις κεῖται.ηʹ. Επίπεδος δὲ γωνία ἐστὶν ἡ ἐν ἐπιπέδῳ δύο γραμμῶνἁπτομένων ἀλλήλων καὶ μὴ ἐπ εὐθείας κειμένων πρὸςἀλλήλας τῶν γραμμῶν κλίσις.θʹ. Οταν δὲ αἱ περιέχουσαι τὴν γωνίαν γραμμαὶ εὐθεῖαιὦσιν, εὐθύγραμμος καλεῖται ἡ γωνία.ιʹ. Οταν δὲ εὐθεῖα ἐπ εὐθεῖαν σταθεῖσα τὰς ἐφεξῆςγωνίας ἴσας ἀλλήλαις ποιῇ, ὀρθὴ ἑκατέρα τῶν ἴσων γωνιῶνἐστι, καὶ ἡ ἐφεστηκυῖα εὐθεῖα κάθετος καλεῖται, ἐφ ἣνἐφέστηκεν.ιαʹ. Αμβλεῖα γωνία ἐστὶν ἡ μείζων ὀρθῆς.ιβʹ. Οξεῖα δὲ ἡ ἐλάσσων ὀρθῆς.ιγʹ. Ορος ἐστίν, ὅ τινός ἐστι πέρας.ιδʹ. Σχῆμά ἐστι τὸ ὑπό τινος ἤ τινων ὅρων περιεχόμενον.ιεʹ. Κύκλος ἐστὶ σχῆμα ἐπίπεδον ὑπὸ μιᾶς γραμμῆςπεριεχόμενον [ἣ καλεῖται περιφέρεια], πρὸς ἣν ἀφ ἑνὸςσημείου τῶν ἐντὸς τοῦ σχήματος κειμένων πᾶσαι αἱπροσπίπτουσαι εὐθεῖαι [πρὸς τὴν τοῦ κύκλου περιφέρειαν]ἴσαι ἀλλήλαις εἰσίν.ιϛʹ. Κέντρον δὲ τοῦ κύκλου τὸ σημεῖον καλεῖται.ιζʹ. Διάμετρος δὲ τοῦ κύκλου ἐστὶν εὐθεῖά τις διὰ τοῦκέντρου ἠγμένη καὶ περατουμένη ἐφ ἑκάτερα τὰ μέρηὑπὸ τῆς τοῦ κύκλου περιφερείας, ἥτις καὶ δίχα τέμνει τὸνκύκλον.ιηʹ. Ημικύκλιον δέ ἐστι τὸ περιεχόμενον σχῆμα ὑπό τετῆς διαμέτρου καὶ τῆς ἀπολαμβανομένης ὑπ αὐτῆς περιφερείας. κέντρον δὲ τοῦ ἡμικυκλίου τὸ αὐτό, ὃ καὶ τοῦκύκλου ἐστίν.ιθʹ. Σχήματα εὐθύγραμμά ἐστι τὰ ὑπὸ εὐθειῶν περιεχόμενα, τρίπλευρα μὲν τὰ ὑπὸ τριῶν, τετράπλευρα δὲ τὰὑπὸ τεσσάρων, πολύπλευρα δὲ τὰ ὑπὸ πλειόνων ἢ τεσσάρωνεὐθειῶν περιεχόμενα.κʹ. Τῶν δὲ τριπλεύρων σχημάτων ἰσόπλευρον μὲντρίγωνόν ἐστι τὸ τὰς τρεῖς ἴσας ἔχον πλευράς, ἰσοσκελὲςδὲ τὸ τὰς δύο μόνας ἴσας ἔχον πλευράς, σκαληνὸν δὲ τὸτὰς τρεῖς ἀνίσους ἔχον πλευράς.καʹ Ετι δὲ τῶν τριπλεύρων σχημάτων ὀρθογώνιον μὲντρίγωνόν ἐστι τὸ ἔχον ὀρθὴν γωνίαν, ἀμβλυγώνιον δὲ τὸἔχον ἀμβλεῖαν γωνίαν, ὀξυγώνιον δὲ τὸ τὰς τρεῖς ὀξείαςἔχον γωνίας.1. A point is that of which there is no part.2. And a line is a length without breadth.3. And the extremities of a line are points.4. A straight-line is (any) one which lies evenly withpoints on itself.5. And a surface is that which has length and breadthonly.6. And the extremities of a surface are lines.7. A plane surface is (any) one which lies evenly withthe straight-lines on itself.8. And a plane angle is the inclination of the lines toone another, when two lines in a plane meet one another,and are not lying in a straight-line.9. And when the lines containing the angle arestraight then the angle is called rectilinear.10. And when a straight-line stood upon (another)straight-line makes adjacent angles (which are) equal toone another, each of the equal angles is a right-angle, andthe former straight-line is called a perpendicular to thatupon which it stands.11. An obtuse angle is one greater than a right-angle.12. And an acute angle (is) one less than a right-angle.13. A boundary is that which is the extremity of something.14. A figure is that which is contained by some boundary or boundaries.15. A circle is a plane figure contained by a single line[which is called a circumference], (such that) all of thestraight-lines radiating towards [the circumference] fromone point amongst those lying inside the figure are equalto one another.16. And the point is called the center of the circle.17. And a diameter of the circle is any straight-line,being drawn through the center, and terminated in eachdirection by the circumference of the circle. (And) anysuch (straight-line) also cuts the circle in half.†18. And a semi-circle is the figure contained by thediameter and the circumference cuts off by it. And thecenter of the semi-circle is the same (point) as (the centerof) the circle.19. Rectilinear figures are those (figures) containedby straight-lines: trilateral figures being those containedby three straight-lines, quadrilateral by four, and multilateral by more than four.20. And of the trilateral figures: an equilateral triangle is that having three equal sides, an isosceles (triangle)that having only two equal sides, and a scalene (triangle)that having three unequal sides.6
STOIQEIWN aþ.ELEMENTS BOOK 1κβʹ. Τὼν δὲ τετραπλεύρων σχημάτων τετράγωνον μένἐστιν, ὃ ἰσόπλευρόν τέ ἐστι καὶ ὀρθογώνιον, ἑτερόμηκεςδέ, ὃ ὀρθογώνιον μέν, οὐκ ἰσόπλευρον δέ, ῥόμβος δέ, ὃἰσόπλευρον μέν, οὐκ ὀρθογώνιον δέ, ῥομβοειδὲς δὲ τὸ τὰςἀπεναντίον πλευράς τε καὶ γωνίας ἴσας ἀλλήλαις ἔχον, ὃοὔτε ἰσόπλευρόν ἐστιν οὔτε ὀρθογώνιον· τὰ δὲ παρὰ ταῦτατετράπλευρα τραπέζια καλείσθω.κγʹ. Παράλληλοί εἰσιν εὐθεῖαι, αἵτινες ἐν τῷ αὐτῷἐπιπέδῳ οὖσαι καὶ ἐκβαλλόμεναι εἰς ἄπειρον ἐφ ἑκάτερατὰ μέρη ἐπὶ μηδέτερα συμπίπτουσιν ἀλλήλαις.†21. And further of the trilateral figures: a right-angledtriangle is that having a right-angle, an obtuse-angled(triangle) that having an obtuse angle, and an acuteangled (triangle) that having three acute angles.22. And of the quadrilateral figures: a square is thatwhich is right-angled and equilateral, a rectangle thatwhich is right-angled but not equilateral, a rhombus thatwhich is equilateral but not right-angled, and a rhomboidthat having opposite sides and angles equal to one another which is neither right-angled nor equilateral. Andlet quadrilateral figures besides these be called trapezia.23. Parallel lines are straight-lines which, being in thesame plane, and being produced to infinity in each direction, meet with one another in neither (of these directions).This should really be counted as a postulate, rather than as part of a definition.AÊt mata.Postulatesαʹ. Ηιτήσθω ἀπὸ παντὸς σημείου ἐπὶ πᾶν σημεῖονεὐθεῖαν γραμμὴν ἀγαγεῖν.βʹ. Καὶ πεπερασμένην εὐθεῖαν κατὰ τὸ συνεχὲς ἐπ εὐθείας ἐκβαλεῖν.γʹ. Καὶ παντὶ κέντρῳ καὶ διαστήματι κύκλον γράφεσθαι.δʹ. Καὶ πάσας τὰς ὀρθὰς γωνίας ἴσας ἀλλήλαις εἶναι.εʹ. Καὶ ἐὰν εἰς δύο εὐθείας εὐθεῖα ἐμπίπτουσα τὰς ἐντὸςκαὶ ἐπὶ τὰ αὐτὰ μέρη γωνίας δύο ὀρθῶν ἐλάσσονας ποιῇ,ἐκβαλλομένας τὰς δύο εὐθείας ἐπ ἄπειρον συμπίπτειν, ἐφ ἃ μέρη εἰσὶν αἱ τῶν δύο ὀρθῶν ἐλάσσονες.1. Let it have been postulated† to draw a straight-linefrom any point to any point.2. And to produce a finite straight-line continuouslyin a straight-line.3. And to draw a circle with any center and radius.4. And that all right-angles are equal to one another.5. And that if a straight-line falling across two (other)straight-lines makes internal angles on the same side(of itself whose sum is) less than two right-angles, thenthe two (other) straight-lines, being produced to infinity,meet on that side (of the original straight-line) that the(sum of the internal angles) is less than two right-angles(and do not meet on the other side).‡†The Greek present perfect tense indicates a past action with present significance. Hence, the 3rd-person present perfect imperative Hit sjwcould be translated as “let it be postulated”, in the sense “let it stand as postulated”, but not “let the postulate be now brought forward”. Theliteral translation “let it have been postulated” sounds awkward in English, but more accurately captures the meaning of the Greek.‡ This postulate effectively specifies that we are dealing with the geometry of flat, rather than curved, space.KoinaÈ ênnoiai.Common Notionsαʹ. Τὰ τῷ αὐτῷ ἴσα καὶ ἀλλήλοις ἐστὶν ἴσα.1. Things equal to the same thing are also equal toβʹ. Καὶ ἐὰν ἴσοις ἴσα προστεθῇ, τὰ ὅλα ἐστὶν ἴσα.one another.γʹ. Καὶ ἐὰν ἀπὸ ἴσων ἴσα ἀφαιρεθῇ, τὰ καταλειπόμενά2. And if equal things are added to equal things thenἐστιν ἴσα.the wholes are equal.δʹ. Καὶ τὰ ἐφαρμόζοντα ἐπ ἀλλήλα ἴσα ἀλλήλοις ἐστίν.3. And if equal things are subtracted from equal thingsεʹ. Καὶ τὸ ὅλον τοῦ μέρους μεῖζόν [ἐστιν].then the remainders are equal.†4. And things coinciding with one another are equalto one another.5. And the whole [is] greater than the part.†As an obvious extension of C.N.s 2 & 3—if equal things are added or subtracted from the two sides of an inequality then the inequality remains7
STOIQEIWN aþ.ELEMENTS BOOK 1an inequality of the same type.aþ.Proposition 1 Επὶ τῆς δοθείσης εὐθείας πεπερασμένης τρίγωνονἰσόπλευρον συστήσασθαι.To construct an equilateral triangle on a given finitestraight-line.Γ ΑCΒΕD Εστω ἡ δοθεῖσα εὐθεῖα πεπερασμένη ἡ ΑΒ.Δεῖ δὴ ἐπὶ τῆς ΑΒ εὐθείας τρίγωνον τρῳ μὲν τῷ Α διαστήματι δὲ τῷ ΑΒ κύκλοςγεγράφθω ὁ ΒΓΔ, καὶ πάλιν κέντρῳ μὲν τῷ Β διαστήματι δὲτῷ ΒΑ κύκλος γεγράφθω ὁ ΑΓΕ, καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ Γ σημείου,καθ ὃ τέμνουσιν ἀλλήλους οἱ κύκλοι, ἐπί τὰ Α, Β σημεῖαἐπεζεύχθωσαν εὐθεῖαι αἱ ΓΑ, ΓΒ.Καὶ ἐπεὶ τὸ Α σημεῖον κέντρον ἐστὶ τοῦ ΓΔΒ κύκλου,ἴση ἐστὶν ἡ ΑΓ τῇ ΑΒ· πάλιν, ἐπεὶ τὸ Β σημεῖον κέντρονἐστὶ τοῦ ΓΑΕ κύκλου, ἴση ἐστὶν ἡ ΒΓ τῇ ΒΑ. ἐδείχθη δὲκαὶ ἡ ΓΑ τῇ ΑΒ ἴση· ἑκατέρα ἄρα τῶν ΓΑ, ΓΒ τῇ ΑΒ ἐστινἴση. τὰ δὲ τῷ αὐτῷ ἴσα καὶ ἀλλήλοις ἐστὶν ἴσα· καὶ ἡ ΓΑ ἄρατῇ ΓΒ ἐστιν ἴση· αἱ τρεῖς ἄρα αἱ ΓΑ, ΑΒ, ΒΓ ἴσαι ἀλλήλαιςεἰσίν. Ισόπλευρον ἄρα ἐστὶ τὸ ΑΒΓ τρίγωνον. καὶ συνέσταταιἐπὶ τῆς δοθείσης εὐθείας πεπερασμένης τῆς ΑΒ. ὅπερ ἔδειποιῆσαι.ABELet AB be the given finite straight-line.So it is required to construct an equilateral triangle onthe straight-line AB.Let the circle BCD with center A and radius AB havebeen drawn [Post. 3], and again let the circle ACE withcenter B and radius BA have been drawn [Post. 3]. Andlet the straight-lines CA and CB have been joined fromthe point C, where the circles cut one another,† to thepoints A and B (respectively) [Post. 1].And since the point A is the center of the circle CDB,AC is equal to AB [Def. 1.15]. Again, since the pointB is the center of the circle CAE, BC is equal to BA[Def. 1.15]. But CA was also shown (to be) equal to AB.Thus, CA and CB are each equal to AB. But things equalto the same thing are also equal to one another [C.N. 1].Thus, CA is also equal to CB. Thus, the three (straightlines) CA, AB, and BC are equal to one another.Thus, the triangle ABC is equilateral, and has beenconstructed on the given finite straight-line AB. (Whichis) the very thing it was required to do.†The assumption that the circles do indeed cut one another should be counted as an additional postulate. There is also an implicit assumptionthat two straight-lines cannot share a common segment.bþ.Proposition 2†Πρὸς τῷ δοθέντι σημείῳ τῇ δοθείσῃ εὐθείᾳ ἴσην εὐθεῖανθέσθαι. Εστω τὸ μὲν δοθὲν σημεῖον τὸ Α, ἡ δὲ δοθεῖσα εὐθεῖαἡ ΒΓ· δεῖ δὴ πρὸς τῷ Α σημείῳ τῇ δοθείσῃ εὐθείᾳ τῇ ΒΓἴσην εὐθεῖαν θέσθαι. Επεζεύχθω γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ Α σημείου ἐπί τὸ Β σημεῖονεὐθεῖα ἡ ΑΒ, καὶ συνεστάτω ἐπ αὐτῆς τρίγωνον ἰσόπλευροντὸ ΔΑΒ, καὶ ἐκβεβλήσθωσαν ἐπ εὐθείας ταῖς ΔΑ, ΔΒTo place a straight-line equal to a given straight-lineat a given point (as an extremity).Let A be the given point, and BC the given straightline. So it is required to place a straight-line at point Aequal to the given straight-line BC.For let the straight-line AB have been joined frompoint A to point B [Post. 1], and let the equilateral triangle DAB have been been constructed upon it [Prop. 1.1].8
STOIQEIWN aþ.ELEMENTS BOOK 1εὐθεῖαι αἱ ΑΕ, ΒΖ, καὶ κέντρῳ μὲν τῷ Β διαστήματι δὲ τῷ And let the straight-lines AE and BF have been proΒΓ κύκλος γεγράφθω ὁ ΓΗΘ, καὶ πάλιν κέντρῳ τῷ Δ καὶ duced in a straight-line with DA and DB (respectively)διαστήματι τῷ ΔΗ κύκλος γεγράφθω ὁ ΗΚΛ.[Post. 2]. And let the circle CGH with center B and radius BC have been drawn [Post. 3], and again let the circle GKL with center D and radius DG have been drawn[Post. 3].ΓCΘHΚK DΒBΑAΗGΖFΛLΕE Επεὶ οὖν τὸ Β σημεῖον κέντρον ἐστὶ τοῦ ΓΗΘ, ἴση ἐστὶνἡ ΒΓ τῇ ΒΗ. πάλιν, ἐπεὶ τὸ Δ σημεῖον κέντρον ἐστὶ τοῦΗΚΛ κύκλου, ἴση ἐστὶν ἡ ΔΛ τῇ ΔΗ, ὧν ἡ ΔΑ τῇ ΔΒ ἴσηἐστίν. λοιπὴ ἄρα ἡ ΑΛ λοιπῇ τῇ ΒΗ ἐστιν ἴση. ἐδείχθη δὲκαὶ ἡ ΒΓ τῇ ΒΗ ἴση· ἑκατέρα ἄρα τῶν ΑΛ, ΒΓ τῇ ΒΗ ἐστινἴση. τὰ δὲ τῷ αὐτῷ ἴσα καὶ ἀλλήλοις ἐστὶν ἴσα· καὶ ἡ ΑΛἄρα τῇ ΒΓ ἐστιν ἴση.Πρὸς ἄρα τῷ δοθέντι σημείῳ τῷ Α τῇ δοθείσῃ εὐθείᾳτῇ ΒΓ ἴση εὐθεῖα κεῖται ἡ ΑΛ· ὅπερ ἔδει ποιῆσαι.Therefore, since the point B is the center of (the circle) CGH, BC is equal to BG [Def. 1.15]. Again, sincethe point D is the center of the circle GKL, DL is equalto DG [Def. 1.15]. And within these, DA is equal to DB.Thus, the remainder AL is equal to the remainder BG[C.N. 3]. But BC was also shown (to be) equal to BG.Thus, AL and BC are each equal to BG. But things equalto the same thing are also equal to one another [C.N. 1].Thus, AL is also equal to BC.Thus, the straight-line AL, equal to the given straightline BC, has been placed at the given point A. (Whichis) the very thing it was required to do.†This proposition admits of a number of different cases, depending on the relative positions of the point A and the line BC. In such situations,Euclid invariably only considers one particular case—usually, the most difficult—and leaves the remaining cases as exercises for the reader.gþ.Proposition 3Δύο δοθεισῶν εὐθειῶν ἀνίσων ἀπὸ τῆς μείζονος τῇἐλάσσονι ἴσην εὐθεῖαν ἀφελεῖν. Εστωσαν αἱ δοθεῖσαι δύο εὐθεῖαι ἄνισοι αἱ ΑΒ, Γ, ὧνμείζων ἔστω ἡ ΑΒ· δεῖ δὴ ἀπὸ τῆς μείζονος τῆς ΑΒ τῇἐλάσσονι τῇ Γ ἴσην εὐθεῖαν ἀφελεῖν.Κείσθω πρὸς τῷ Α σημείῳ τῇ Γ εὐθείᾳ ἴση ἡ ΑΔ· καὶκέντρῳ μὲν τῷ Α διαστήματι δὲ τῷ ΑΔ κύκλος γεγράφθωὁ ΔΕΖ.Καὶ ἐπεὶ τὸ Α σημεῖον κέντρον ἐστὶ τοῦ ΔΕΖ κύκλου,For two given unequal straight-lines, to cut off fromthe greater a straight-line equal to the lesser.Let AB and C be the two given unequal straight-lines,of which let the greater be AB. So it is required to cut offa straight-line equal to the lesser C from the greater AB.Let the line AD, equal to the straight-line C, havebeen placed at point A [Prop. 1.2]. And let the circleDEF have been drawn with center A and radius AD[Post. 3].9
STOIQEIWN aþ.ELEMENTS BOOK 1ἴση ἐστὶν ἡ ΑΕ τῇ ΑΔ· ἀλλὰ καὶ ἡ Γ τῇ ΑΔ ἐστιν ἴση.And since point A is the center of circle DEF , AEἑκατέρα ἄρα τῶν ΑΕ, Γ τῇ ΑΔ ἐστιν ἴση· ὥστε καὶ ἡ ΑΕ is equal to AD [Def. 1.15]. But, C is also equal to AD.τῇ Γ ἐστιν ἴση.Thus, AE and C are each equal to AD. So AE is alsoequal to C [C.N. 1].ΓC DΕEΒΑBAFΖΔύο ἄρα δοθεισῶν εὐθειῶν ἀνίσων τῶν ΑΒ, Γ ἀπὸ τῆςThus, for two given unequal straight-lines, AB and C,μείζονος τῆς ΑΒ τῇ ἐλάσσονι τῇ Γ ἴση ἀφῄρηται ἡ ΑΕ· ὅπερ the (straight-line) AE, equal to the lesser C, has been cutἔδει ποιῆσαι.off from the greater AB. (Which is) the very thing it wasrequired to do.dþ.Proposition 4 Εὰν δύο τρίγωνα τὰς δύο πλευρὰς [ταῖς] δυσὶ πλευραῖςἴσας ἔχῃ ἑκατέραν ἑκατέρᾳ καὶ τὴν γωνίαν τῇ γωνίᾳ ἴσηνἔχῃ τὴν ὑπὸ τῶν ἴσων εὐθειῶν περιεχομένην, καὶ τὴνβάσιν τῂ βάσει ἴσην ἕξει, καὶ τὸ τρίγωνον τῷ τριγώνῳ ἴσονἔσται, καὶ αἱ λοιπαὶ γωνίαι ταῖς λοιπαῖς γωνίαις ἴσαι ἔσονταιἑκατέρα ἑκατέρᾳ, ὑφ ἃς αἱ ἴσαι πλευραὶ ὑποτείνουσιν.If two triangles have two sides equal to two sides, respectively, and have the angle(s) enclosed by the equalstraight-lines equal, then they will also have the baseequal to the base, and the triangle will be equal to the triangle, and the remaining angles subtended by the equalsides will be equal to the corresponding remaining angles.ΑΒ ΓΕDAΖB Εστω δύο τρίγωνα τὰ ΑΒΓ, ΔΕΖ τὰς δύο πλευρὰςτὰς ΑΒ, ΑΓ ταῖς δυσὶ πλευραῖς ταῖς ΔΕ, ΔΖ ἴσας ἔχονταἑκατέραν ἑκατέρᾳ τὴν μὲν ΑΒ τῇ ΔΕ τὴν δὲ ΑΓ τῇ ΔΖκαὶ γωνίαν τὴν ὑπὸ ΒΑΓ γωνίᾳ τῇ ὑπὸ ΕΔΖ ἴσην. λέγω,ὅτι καὶ βάσις ἡ ΒΓ βάσει τῇ ΕΖ ἴση ἐστίν, καὶ τὸ ΑΒΓτρίγωνον τῷ ΔΕΖ τριγώνῳ ἴσον ἔσται, καὶ αἱ λοιπαὶ γωνίαιταῖς λοιπαῖς γωνίαις ἴσαι ἔσονται ἑκατέρα ἑκατέρᾳ, ὑφ ἃςαἱ ἴσαι πλευραὶ ὑποτείνουσιν, ἡ μὲν ὑπὸ ΑΒΓ τῇ ὑπὸ ΔΕΖ,ἡ δὲ ὑπὸ ΑΓΒ τῇ ὑπὸ ΔΖΕ. Εφαρμοζομένου γὰρ τοῦ ΑΒΓ τριγώνου ἐπὶ τὸ ΔΕΖτρίγωνον καὶ τιθεμένου τοῦ μὲν Α σημείου ἐπὶ τὸ Δ σημεῖονCEFLet ABC and DEF
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Euclid of Alexandria: Elementary Geometry Introduction Euclid (c. early 3rd century BCE) I We know almost nothing about Euclid. I We are not even certain that he lived and worked in Alexandria, but we assume this is the case,
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Problem of Euclid than meets the eye, and that much of the overtly mathematical associations of the 47 th Problem serve to intentionally veil its true (covert) meaning. A Brief History The actual formula c 2 a 2 b 2 for which The 47 th Problem of Euclid serves as proof actually predates[ii] Euclid (circa 300 BC) by more than 280 years.
Mandelbrot, Fractal Geometry of Nature, 1982). Typically, when we think of GEOMETRY, we think of straight lines and angles, this is what is known as EUCLIDEAN geometry, named after the ALEXANDRIAN Greek mathematician, EUCLID. This type of geometry is perfect for a world created by humans, but what about the geometry of the natural world?
Geometry IGeometry { geo means "earth", metron means "measurement" IGeometry is the study of shapes and measurement in a space. IRoughly a geometry consists of a speci cation of a set and and lines satisfying the Euclid's rst four postulates. IThe most common types of geometry are plane geometry, solid geometry, nite geometries, projective geometries etc.
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