DOCUMENT RESUME ED 091 693 CS 201 274
DOCUMENT RESUMEED 091 693CS 201 274AUTHORTITLEPUB DATENOTEStanley, Julia P.The Stylistics of Belief.Apr 7414p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theConference on College Composition and Communication(25th, Anaheim, California, April 1974)EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORSte- 0.75 HC- 1.50 PLUS POSTAGE*Communication (Thought Transfer); ExpressiveLanguage; Figurative Language; *Language Usage;Linguistics; *Persuasive Discourse; Phrase Structure;Rhetoric; *SyntaxABSTRACTThe stylistics of belief is the study of the mays inwhich language is used by speakers to express their beliefs, toconvince other people they are right, or to avoid committingthemselves to particular beliefs. Such study can contribute to anunderstanding of the ways in which people misuse and manipulatelanguage for their own ends. The underlying belief system of thespeaker, what linguists and philosophers call presuppositions,determines the choice of syntactic construction and specific words ina given utterance. The term "style" presupposes that there is not asingle way of saying what we have tc say, but in fact that we haveavailable to us many possible choices for expressing outselves. Thechoice of style, however, is limited by our presuppositions, ourestimation of our audience, and the contextual limitations dictatedby our cultural expectations. Two linguistic areas that relate toanalysis of style are syntax and word-choice. Syntactic exploitationrefers to the use of sentence structures that permit deletion oflinguistic material when deletion occurs in contexts where the readeris unable to recover the. deleted Taterial. Exploitation throughword-choice can be divided into two types: the use of words for theiremotional effect, their connotations, and for labeling; andmetaphors.(WR)
U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION &WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINAT iNG IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFITIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICYTHE STYLISTICS OF BELIEF"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BYJulia P. StanleyTO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE NATIONAL IN-STITUTE OF EDUCATION FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHTJULIA P. STANLEYDEPARTMENT OF ENGLISHUNIVERSITY OF GEORGIAATHENS, GEORGIA 30602OWNER"'Paver delivered to the Conference on College Composition andCommunication, Anaheim, California, April 4-6, 1974.
.Will our new Edge, our new Deathkin!dom,be the Moon?. I dream of a great glass sphere,.thehollow and very high and far away.colonists have learned to do without air, it's.it's understood thevacuum inside and out.they are all men.men won't ever return.There are ways for getting back, but so comPlicated, so at the mercy of language, that Presence back un Earth is only temporary, andnever 'real'.--Thomas PYnchon, Gravity's Rainbow,P. 723.SOME OF US MIGHT WELL WISH THAT OUR "NEW DEATHKINGDOM"WERE THE MOON.WE MIGHT WISH THAT THE "NEW EDGE" OF OUR LIVES,THE EXCITING EDGE OF EXPERIENCE THAT GIVES DEFINITION TO OUREXISTENCE, WERE AS FAR REMOVED FROM US AS THE MOON IS.WE'VEALWAYS FOUND IT EASIER TO COME TO TERMS WITH OBJECTS BEYOND THEIMMEDIATE AND THREATENING DOMAIN OF OUR PRIVATE LIVES.THE MOONIS STILL FAR ENOUGH FOR US TO BE ABLE TO TALK ABOUT IT AS SOMETHING UNCONNECTED WITH OUR LIVES.BUT THE "GLASS SPHERE, HOLLOWAND VERY HIGH" IS NOT SOMEWHERE OUT ON THE MOON.FAR AWAY.IT IS NOT THATTHE SPHERE IN WHICH WE ALL LIVE IS NOT EVEN GLASS; WEARE MORE VULNERABLE THAN THAT.WE LIVE WITHIN THE WALLS OF OUROWN ISOLATION FROM OTHERS, EACH BRICK OF OUR DEFENSES CEMENTEDovr okm )e. A -14FIRMLY IN PLACE BY FEAR.AREN'T ALL MEN, EITHER.THOSE OF US MAROONED-WITHIN OURSELVESAMORE THAN HALF OF US ARE WOMEN.THENEW DEATHKINGDOM IN WHICH WE FIND OURSELVES IS OUR CULTURE, ANDTHE SPHERE THAT SHOULD PROTECT US, BUT THATUS, IS OUR LANGUAGE.IN FACT, IMPRISONSAND ALL OF THE WAYS OF GETTING BACK TO EACHOTHER ARE COMPLICATED, AND "AT THE MERCY OF LANGUAGE." BUT. LANGUAGE
IS ONE WAY OF MAKING OUR PRESENCE HERE ON EARTH 'REAL.'LANGUAGEPROVIDES US WITH A WAY OF REACHING BEYOND OURSELVES TOWARD OTHERS;THROUGH LANGUAGE WE COME TO AN UNDERSTANDING OF OTHERS' AND OURSELVES IN RELATION TO THOSE OTHERS WITH WHOM WE SHARE OUR FEAR ANDVULNERABILITY.YET, ONE OF OUR MOST IMPORTANT METHODS OF REACHINGEACH OTHER IS, AT THE SAME TIME, THE GREATEST OBSTACLE TO OURFREEDOM.IF LANGUAGE ISOLATES US FROM OTHERS, IT HAS ALSO COMETO SERVE TO ISOLATE US FROM OURSELVES.ICANNOT BEGIN TO TRACEHOW ALL THIS CAME ABOUT: ALL THAT I CAN DO IS TRY TO DEFINE THEPOINT AT WHICH WE FIND OURSELVES RIGHT NOW.THROUGH A VERYGRADUAL PROCESS WE HAVE BECOME ALIENATED FROM OUR OWN LANGUAGE.THAT IS, WE NO LONGER FEEL THAT OUR LANGUAGE BELONGS TO US.WECANNOT TRUST IT TO ACCURATELY EXPRESS OUR FEELINGS, AND WE DO NOTTRUST THE LANGUAGE OF OTHERS.WHILE IT'S POSSIBLE THATiTHAS DEVELOPED FROM SEPARATE TRENDSIN OUR CULTURE' THESE TWO FACTORS HAVE COME TOGETHER TO PRODUCETHE PARADOXICAL SITUATION I'M DESCRIBING.FOR EXAMPLE, IT WOULDBE VERY EASY TO SAY THAT IT HAS BEEN PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES TOTHE TEACHING OF ENGLISH THAT HAVE DISPOSSESSED US OF OUR DESIRETO LEARN THE INTRICACIES OF OUR LANGUAGE: IT WOULD ALSO BE EASYTO SAY THAT WASHINGTON POLITICIANS AND BUREAUCRATS AND MADISONAVENUE ADVERTISING COPYWRITERS HAVE CREATED OUR.DISTRUST OF THE.WORDS OF OTHERS.AND NO DOUBT, BOTH OF THESE SITUATIONS HAVE'HAD SOME INFLUENCE IN BRINGING ABOUT THE PRESENT LINGUISTICCRISIS.BUT THERE HAVE PROBABLY BEEN MANY OTHER FORCES AT WORKSSO MANY, AND SO SUBTLE' AND OVER SO LONG A PERIOD OF TIME THAT
3WE MAY NEVER BE ABLE TO COMPREHEND THE WHOLE PROCESS OF BREAKDOWN WHEREBY OUR LANGUAGE HAS BECOME SEPARATED FROM ITS COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION.FOR THE SAKE OF CLARITY, LET ME REPEAT HERETHE TWO ASPECTS OF OUR SITUATION WITH RESPECT TO ENGLISH:WENO LONGER COUNT THE POSSESSION OF LANGUAGE AS A PERSONAL THING,AND WE NO LONGER LISTEN TO WHAT ANYONE ELSE IS SAYING BECAUSEWE CANNOT ASSUME THAT THEY MEAN WHAT THEY)RE SAYING.IF WEACCEPT THESE TWO CONDITIONS AS RECIPROCAL ASPECTS OF THE SAMEPROBLEM, THEN WE MUST SET OURSELVES THE TASK OF TRYING TO UNDERSTAND AS MUCH OF THE PROBLEM AS WE CAN, THEN WE MUST SET ABOUTSEEKING METHODS OF REVERSING THE PROCESS NOW IN MOTION.FOR ALL OF US, BECAUSE WE ARE NOT OMNISCIENT OR DO NOTPOSSESS PRECOGNITION, MUCH OF OUR EXPERIENCE IS CHAOTIC.WE DONOT HAVE THE ABILITY TO OVER-SEE OUR LIVES, TO REACH A POINT OFAWARENESS FROM WHICH THE LARGER PATTERNS AND THEIR MINUTE INTRICACIES ARE CLEAR AND INTELLIGIBLE TO US.WE USE LANGUAGE TOINTERPRET AND ORDER OUR DAILY EXPERIENCES AND INTERACTIONS WITHOTHERS.LANGUAGE PROVID'S US WITH A MEANS OF ORDERING EVENTSAND A STRUCTURE WITH WHICH WE CAN REPRESENT THOSE EVENTS FOROURSELVES AND OTHERS.WITH LANGUAGE WE CONSTRUCT OUR THEORIESOF REALITY, AND EACH OF US HAS A UNIRUE WAY OF PUTTING OUR EXPERIENCES TOGETHER, AND AN INDIVIDUAL INTERPRETATION OF EVENTSIN THE OUTSIDE WORLD.BUT THE FACT OF THE MATTER REMAINS THATWE INHERIT OUR LINGUISTIC STRUCTURES FROM THE CULTURE, ESPECIALLYTHROUGH THE MAJOR AGENTS OF OUR CULTURE, PARENTS AND TEACHERS.THROUGH THESE TWO PRIMARY SOURCES, WE ABSORB, AS WE ACRUIRE OURNATIVE LANGUAGE, THE EXPECTATIONS, ASSUMPTIONS, AND DEFINITIONSSANCTIONED BY THE CULTURE INTO WHICH WE ARE BORN.THE TERMS AND
4STRUCTURES FOR VERBAL EXPRESSION PROVIDED BY THE LANGUAGE WELEARN DELIMIT AND RESTRICT THE POSSIBILITIES AVAILABLE TO USFOR FORMULATING OUR. OWN FEELINGS AND REACTIONS Tn EVENTS INTHE WORLD WE PERCEIVE.IN OTHER WORDS, WE ARE PUT IN THE POSI-TION OF HAVING TO EXPRESS OUR CONCEPTUALIZATIONS WITHIN THETERMS MADE AVAILABLE TO US BY OUR CULTURE AND, INEVITABLY, WEOFTEN FIND OURSELVES IN THE UNCOMFORTABLE POSITION OF HAVINGTO EXPRESS FEELINGS THAT DIFFER RADICALLY FROM THOSE SANCTIONEDBY OUR CULTURE IN THE ONLY TERMS OUR CULTURE PROVIDES.FROMTHIS POINT OF VIEW, WE NEED TO SEEK WAYS IN WHICH WE CAN RECLAIMENGLISH FOR OURSELVES AND MAKE IT THE COMMUNICATIVE VEHICLE FOROUR BELIEF SYSTEMS RATHER THAN THAT OF THE BELIEF SYSTEM WE HAVEINHERITED FROM OUR PARENTS AND TEACHERS.IN ORDER TO BEGIN THE PROCESS OF INDIVIDUAL RECLAMATION,ITHINK THAT WE HAVE TO UNDERSTAND FIRST THE SECOND ASPECT OF THEPROBLEM AS I HAVE STATED IT; WE HAVE CEASED TO LISTEN CAREFULLYAND CRITICALLY TO THE WORDS THAT PEOPLE SAY BECAUSE WE HAVELEARNED THAT MOST OF THE WORDS WE HEAR DON'T MEAN ANYTHING.WEHAVE HEARD WORDS BY THE MILLIONS VIRTUALLY EVERY DAY OF OUR LIVES;BUT WE HAVE LEARNED THAT MOST OF WHAT WE HEAR AND READ ISN'T WORTHTHE EFFORT IT TAKES TO COMPREHEND.AS A CONSEQUENCE WE HAVE DE-VELOPED A STUDIED INDIFFERENCE TOWARD THE LANGUAGE THAT WE HEARTHROUGH THE VARIOUS MEDIA.ALL OF US HAVE BEEN EXPOSED .CONTINUALLYTO IRRESPONSIBLE USES OF LANGUAGE, AND WE HAVE BECOME INSENSITIVETO WHAT PEOPLE ARE REALLY SAYING WHEN THEY SPEAK OR WRITE.IAM SUGGESTING IS LINGUISTIC CONSCIOUSNESS-RAISING.WHATIF WE CANISOLATE AND MAKE EXPLICIT THE WAYS IN WHICH LANGUAGE IS USED IRRESPONSIBLY BY OTHER SPEAKERS AND WRITERS TO OPPRESS AND COERCE US,
5THEN WE CAN USE THIS KNOWLEDGE TO HEIGHTEN OUR AWARENESS OFTHE EFFECTS OF OUR LANGUAGE USE ON OTHERS, AND OF THEIR USEOF LANGUAGE ON US.IN THIS WAY, WE CAN BECOME MORE CRITICALBOTH OF WHAT WE HEAR AND WHAT WE SAY.THE STYLISTICS OF BELIEF IS THUS THE STUDY OF THE WAYSIN WHICH LANGUAGE IS USED BY SPEAKERS TO EXPRESS THEIR BELIEFS,TO CONVINCE OTHER PEOPLE THAT THEY ARE RIGHT, OR TO AVOIDCOMMITTING THEMSELVES TO PARTICULAR BELIEFS.THE UNDERLYINGBELIEF SYSTEM OF THE SPEAKER, WHAT LINGUISTS AND PHILOSOPHERS:CALL PRESUPPOSITIONS, DETERMINESTHE CHOICE OF SYNTACTICCONSTRUCTION AND SPECIFIC WORDS IN A GIVEN UTTERANCE.THETERM STYLE PRESUPPOSES THAT THERE IS NOT A SINGLE WAY OF SAYINGWHAT WE HAVE TO SAY, BUT IN FACT THAT WE HAVE AVAILABLE TO USMANY POSSIBLE CHOICES FOR EXPRESSING OURSELVES.OF STYLE, HOWEVER, IS LIMITED BY OURTHE CHOICEPRESUPPOSITIONS, OURESTIMATION OF OUR AUDIENCE, AND THE CONTEXTUAL LIMITATIONSDICTATED BY OUR CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS.THIS DEFINITION OF THE STYLISTICS OF BELIEF. BRINGS USUP AGAINST THE PROBLEM OF INTENTION: THAT IS, AS HEARERS, WEMAKE JUDGMENTS ABOUT THE CREDIBILITY OF THE PERSON SPEAKING TOUS.WE WILL BELIEVE SOMEONE WHO AGREES WITH US, OR, EVEN IFWE DON'T AGREE, WE WILL GIVE MORE WEIGHT TO THE OPINIONS OFOUR JUDGMENTS OF INTENTIONS ARE THUSSOMEONE THAT WE TRUST.DEPENDENT UPON OUR A.OF THE SPEAKER OR WRITER.IF WE BE-LIEVE THAT A SPEAKER IS TRUSTWORTHY, WE WILL DECIDE THAT HERINTENTIONS ARE 'GOOD'.IF WE DON'T TRUST THE SPEAKER, WE ARELIKELY TO DECIDE THAT HER INTENTIONS ARE 'BAD'.BECAUSE
6THERE IS NO WAY OF DETERMINING WHETHER OR NOT CHOICE OF SYNTACTIC CONSTRUCTION AND WORDS/ARE CONSCIOUS OR UNCONSCIOUS ONTHE PART OF THE SPEAKER, AND BECAUSE OUR DECISIONS REGARDINGSUCH CHOICE ARE DEPENDENT UPON OUR JUDGMENTS OF THE SPEAKER'SINTENTIONS, AND THESE JUDGMENTS WILL DIFFER FROM ONE PERSON TOANOTHER, IN ANALYZING UTTERANCES, WE WILL NOT CONSIDER THISPROBLEM HERE.THE STYLISTICS OF BELIEF EXCLUDES JUDGMENTS OFINTENTION, AND THE RESULTS OF ANALYSIS REVEAL ONLY THE CONSE-QUENT EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC WORDS OR STRUCTURES ON THE HEARER ORREADER.I HAVE MENTIONED TWO LINGUISTIC AREAS THAT WILL CONCERNUS IN OUR ANALYSIS OF STYLE, SYNTAX AND WORD-CHOICE.THE USEOF CERTAIN SYNTACTIC CONSTRUCTIONS THAT DECEIVE OR MISLEAD THEUNWARY READER I HAVE ELSEWHERE CALLED "SYNTACTIC EXPLOITATION."SYNTACTIC EXPLOITATION IS THE USE OF SENTENCE STRUCTURES THATPERMIT DELETION OF LINGUISTIC MATERIAL,.DELETION OCCURSAIN CONTEXTS WHERE THE READER IS UNABLE TO RECOVER THE DELETEDINFORMATION, OR IN CONTEXTS WHERE THE RECOVERABILITY OF THEMATERIAL IS DEPENDENT UPON THE READER'S AGREEMENT WITH THEAUTHOR.THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SYNTACTIC EXPLOITATION: 1) THEUSE OF DELETION TO REPRESS INFORMATION REQUIRED BY THE READEROR HEARER FOR UNDERSTANDING OF THE MESSAGE: AND, 2) THE USE OFSENTENCE STRUCTURE TO CONVINCE THE READER OR HEARER THAT THEREIS A MESSAGE AVAILABLE WHEN, IN FACT, THE UTTERANCE IS MEANINGLESS.ELSEWHERE, I HAVE SUGGESTED THAT THE USE OF LANGUAGE TO PRODUCE MEANINGLESS UTTERANCES IS AN "INAPPROPRIATE" USE OF LANGUAGE.THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF MEANINGLESS UTTERANCES THAT DE-
7RIVE FROM THE IMMEDIATE CONTEXT IN WHICH SUCH UTTERANCES AREPRODUCED: 1) EMOTIONAL USES WHICH OCCUR WHEN THE SPEAKER FEELSTHE PRESSURE OF ANXIETY OR HOSTILITY.THE RESULT OF OPPOSING OPINION.THESE ARE MOST OFTEN2) FACTUAL USES WHICH OCCURWHEN THE QUESTION IS ONE INVOLVING DATA TO WHICH BOTH THESPEAKER AND THE HEARER HAVE SOME ACCESS, ALTHOUGH IT IS USUALLYTHE SPEAKER WHO HAS THE MOST INFORMATION.THIS TYPE OF MEANING-LESS UTTERANCE IS WHAT WE USUALLY CALL THE LIE, WHERE THERE IS ACONFLICT BETWEEN WHAT WE ARE TOLD AND WHAT WE KNOW.WORD-CHOICE CAN ALSO BE DIVIDED INTO TWO TYPES.THERE'S THEUSAAFIRST,OF CERTAIN WORDS FOR THEIR EMOTIONAL EFFECT,THEIR CONNOTATIONS, GOOD OR BAD, AND SUCH USAGE MOST OFTEN INVOLVES NAME-CALLING, STEREOTYPING,,ATTRIBUTION OF QUALITIES,AND LABELING.THE SECOND TYPE, THE ONE THAT I FIND THE MOSTINTERESTING, IS THE METAPHOR.METAPHORS, WHICH INVOLVE THECHOICE OF WORDS IN WHICH THERE IS A RELAXATION OF THE SEMANTICFEATURES OF THE LANGUAGE, REVEAL VERY CLEARLY THE UNDERLYINGPRESUPPOSITIONS OF THE SPEAKER, THE WAY IN WHICH THE SPEAKERAPPROACHES AND INTERPRETS THE WORLD.METAPHORS ARE BASICALLYVERBAL: THAT IS, THEY INVOLVE PREDICATIONS ABOUT EVENTS IN THEWORLD, WHICH IS THE REASON THAT THEY EXPOSE TO VIEW THE BELIEFSYSTEM WITHIN WHICH THE SPEAKER IS FUNCTIONING.THERE ARE TWOUSES OF METAPHOR: THE CONSISTENT METAPHOR, WHERE THE SPEAKERTRANSFERS THE FEATURES OF ONE OBJECT TO ANOTHER CONSISTENTLY,AND THE "MIXED" METAPHOR, SO CALLED BECAUSE THE TRANSFER OFFEATURES IS NOT CONSISTENT, BUT IS, INSTEAD, CONFUSED.LET ME NOW GIVE YOU SOME EXAMPLES OF THE TYPES OP LAN-
tf8GUAGE USAGE THAT OPPRESS, DECEIVE, OR OTHERWISE MANIPULATE THE MINDOF THE UNWARY HEARER OR READER.THE SYNTACTIC CONSTRUCTIONS THATPERMIT OPTIONAL DELETION OF AN AGENT OR AN EXPERIENCER INCLUDE THEPASSIVE, WHICH FURTHER EXTENDS TO RELATED STRUCTURES SUCH AS PASSIVEADJECTIVES AND NOMINALIZED PASSIVES, EXPERIENCER PREDICATES LIKE SEEM,APPEAR, AND ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES LIKE APPROPRIATE, INAPPROPRIATE,AND PROPER.THE PASSIVE AND ITS RELATED CONSTRUCTIONS THEORETICALLY PERMIT THE DELETION OF THE AGENT IN CONTEXTS WHERE THE READER CAN ASCERTAIN THE DELETED AGENT FROM THE CONTEXT.HOWEVER, IN CERTAIN KINDS OFPROSE, THE AGENT MAY BE DELETED OR NEVER SURFACED, AND THIS DELETIONHAS THE EFFECT OF CREATING AN APPEAL TO'UNIVERSAL CONSENSUS OR AGENERIC PERSON, SO THAT THE MAJOR PROPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE APPEARSTO HAVE MORE WEIGHT THAN IT ACTUALLY DOES.IN OTHER CONTEXTS, THEAGENT IS DELETED IN ORDER TO PROTECT THE AGENTS RESPONSIBLE FOR THEACTION.CONSIDER THE EXAMPLES IN SECTION II OF THE HANDOUT.(1)a.b.c.Faculty members have to be treated as if they werecogs in a machine.Alas, many husbands are now being emasculated viacigarettes and possibly the female hormones fed tochickens and cattle to tenderize their meat.It is apparent that attention needs to' be given tocommunications, and roles need to he more clearlydefined.(2)a.An expanded newsletter is being used and should provide much information that has not been made availableb.Men regard as amusing this exaggerated fad of tryingto substitute the "Ms." for "Mrs."'The policy memorandums discuss ways to move theseaudiences in the desired direction, through suchtechniques as the controlled release of informationand appeals to patriotic stereotypes.in the' past.c.
(3)a.b.What is needed is more 'intentional' control, notless, and this is an important engineering problem.The misuse of a technology of behavior is a seriousmatter.c.What are the principal specifications of a culturethat it will survive because it induces its membersto work for its survival?THE EXAMPLES IN (1) CONTAIN USES OF THE PASSIVE WITH A DELETEDAGENT THAT CAN ONLY BE A GENERIC PERSON OR SOME GROUP OR INDIVIDUALTHAT THE WRITER DOESN'T WANT TO NAME OR CAN'T NAME.IN (2) ALL OFTHE PASSIVES HAVE BEEN MOVED INTO PRENOMINAL POSITION WHERE THE AGENTMUST BE DELETED.THESE PASSIVE ADJECTIVES ARE PARTICULARLY HANDY FORTHE CAGEY WRITER BECAUSE THE AGENT CANNOT SURFACE AND THE IMPLICATIONSOF THE PASSIVE ADJECTIVE AS A "BURIED" PROPOSITION SLIP BY THE READERWHO DOESN'T STOP TO QUESTION EVERY WORD.(2a) IS ESPECIALLY ENLIGHTENINGIN THAT THE AUTHOR ATTRIBUTES EXAGGERATION TO AGENTS WHO CAN ONLY BEWOMEN WITHIN THE CONTEXT, BUT HE DOESN'T NEED TO EXPLICITLY STATE THISPROPOSITION BECAUSE OF THE CONSTRUCTION, SO THE PREDICATION CANNOT BEQUESTIONED BY THE READER.IN THE EXAMPLES IN (3) WE CAN INSERT A BY-WHOM PHRASE AFTER THE SURFACE NOUNS CONTROL, MISUSE, AND SPECIFICATIONS,RESTORING THE LOST ARGUMENTS OF THE PREDICATIONS.IN SECTION III OF THE HANDOUT, YOU WILL FIND EXAMPLES OFEXPERIENCER-DELETION.THE EXPERIENCER, WHEN SURFACED, USUALLY TURNSOUT TO BE THE FIRST PERSON, TO ME.BUT THESE EXAMPLES INDICATE THATSUCH PREDICATES ARE OFTEN USED TO CONVEY THE IMPRESSION THAT EVERYONEEXPERIENCES THESE PERCEPTIONS, OR ELSE IT IS AN UNNAMED SOMEONE.(4)a.b.We seem to be interested in judicious use when weadmiT-ebehavior because we cannot strengthen it inany other way.We seem to appeal to the miraculous when we callrewards and punishments just or unjust and fair orunfair.c.By questioning the control exercised by autonomousman and demonstrating the control exercised by theenvironment, a science of behavior also seems toquestion dignity or worth.
10(5)a.b.A person who responds in acceptable ways to weakforms of control may have been changed by contingcncies which are no longer operative.The outlines of an effective technology are alreadyclear.c.d.A self is a repertoire of behavior appropriate to agiven set of contingencies.If our attempts. to control are unsuccessful, thecause generally lies in our choice of inappropriatemeans.THE EXAMPLES IN (4) ILLUSTRATE WHAT DONALD SMITH HAS TERMEDTHE PSYCHIATRIC OR THERAPEUTIC USAGE OF SEEM, IN WHICH THE SPEAKER,FROM AN OMNISCIENT POSITION, IMPUTES TO THE MIND OF THE HEARER THOSETHOUGHTS THAT HE THINKS ARE THERE.ALL OF THESE SENTENCES ARE TAKENFROM BEYOND FREEDOM AND DIGNITY, AND THE DELETED EXPERIENCER(S) ARETHE "DEFENDERS" OF FREEDOM AND DIGNITY THAT SKINNER IS ATTACKING.SKINNER USES EXPERIENCER DELETION TO PROJECT THE HYPOTHETICAL THOUGHTSOF HIS ENEMIES IN ORDER TO ADVANCE HIS OWN ASSERTIONS.THE SENTENCESIN (5) EXEMPLIFY THE USE OF ADJECTIVES IN PREDICATIVE AND PRENOMINALPOSITIONS TO EXPRESS VALUE JUDGMENTS DEPENDENT UPON ONE'S BELIEF SYSTEM.THE DELETION OF THE EXPERIENCER(S) IN THESE CONTEXTS CONVEYS THEIMPRESSION THAT THESE ARE UNIVERSALLY-HELD BELIEFS AND, AS SUCH, NOTOPEN TO QUESTION.FOR EXAMPLE, IN (5d) THE AUTHOR J-4DS US TO BELIEVETHAT THE ADJECTIVES UNSUCCESSFUL AND INAPPROPRIATE AhE JUDGMENTS WITHWHICH WE CONCUR.THE SECOND TYPE OF SYNTACTIC EXPLOITATION IS WHAT WE USUALLYCALL "NONSENSE."PLES.SECTION IV OF THE HANDOUT CONTAINS TWO SETS OF EXAM-(6) PROVIDES EXAMPLES OF THE SORT OF STATEMENT THAT POLITICIANSMAKE WHEN REPORTERS FORCE THEM.TO SAY SOMETHING WITH RESPECT TO A SPECIFIC ISSUE,, BUT THEY DON'T WANT TO SAY ANYTHING.IN (7) YOU WILLFIND EXAMPLES OF THE SUBTLE LIE, IN WHICH THE SYNTAX IS SO OBSCURE ORCONVOLUTED THAT IT IS VIRTUALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO INTERPRET.BOTH TYPES
11OF UTTERANCE SHARE TWO INTERESTING FEATURES: IF YOU'RE LISTENINGCLOSELY, THE SPEAKER WILL USUALLY SAY MORE THAN HE INTENDED TO SAY,AND THE USE OF SYNTACTIC ORDERING CONVINCES THE HEARER THATOEALLYIS SOMETHING HAPPENING SEMANTICALLY.OF COURSE, THERE IS SOMETHINGHAPPENING, BUT THE MEANING CONVEYED IS NOT WHAT THE HEARER IS LOOKINGFOR, AND IT IS NOT WHAT THE SPEAKER INTENDS.(6)a.People who are not so smart may have a better understanding of generalizations but their lack of knowledge prohibits their ability to expound into anb.They would take more time to solve the solution because of the low level of their knowledge.There is a danger of reasoning ourselves into inFrom a military point of view, the U. S.action.could function in Southeast Asia about as well asanywhere in the world except Cuba.Spiro Agnew, asked by a newscaster during the 1972elections if he had anything to say about the Watergate Incident, said:issue.c.3."I don't think people should he talking about something that shouldn't have happened."e.Homosexuality is a perversion and a threat to heterosexuality.(7)a."One thing that has always puzzled me about it is whyanybody would have tried to get anything out of theWatergate," Nixon said. "Be that as it may, that decision having been made at a lower level, with which."I had no knowledge, and, as I pointed out.(October, 1972)How do the separate and disparate experiences of individuals. lead to a common acceptance of generalmeaning but which also permit differences of interpretation?.b.c.One obstacle, lack of skill in the use of standardAmerican English, has increasingly been recognizedas a major contributing factor to the success of achild beginning his formal education.1.In brief the strategy is to prepare the child forcandidacy into the economic mainstream.e.American shipping, both in and out, and our seagoingmilitary arm would be succes-fully bottled up andforced to either pay high tribute or add severalweeks to ocean voyages around canals and locks.
12DICTION, THE SECOND AREA IN WHICH PRESUPPOSITIONS DETERMINEUSAGE, IS THE MOST FAMILIAR AREA IN OUR CONSIDERATIONS Or LANGUAGEMISUSE, SO I WON'T SPEND MUCH TIME ON IT HERE, EXCEPT TO POINT OUTTHAT TERMS LIKE MANNISH, WOMANISH, MANLY, WOMANLY, SISSY, AND QUEERARE STEREOTYPICAL LABELS THAT PRESUPPOSE THAT THERE ARE "APPROPRIATE"AND "ACCEPTABLE" BEHAVIORS FOR PEOPLE, AND SUCH LABELS ARE USED TO:OERCE PEOPLE INTO CONFORMITY WITH SOCIALLY-DEFINED ROLES.TO CLASSIFYBEHAVIOR AS EITHER MASCULINE OR FEMININE IS TO ASSERT THAT SUCH A CATEGORIZATION IS BASED ON FACT, WHEN IT IS ACTUALLY BASED ON CULTURALLYIMPOSED BELIEF SYSTEMS.THE SECOND AREA OF WORD-CHOICE HAS TO DO WITH METAPHORS,THOSE COMPARISONS THAT WE COMMONLY USE TO EXPRESS PERCEIVED RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN OBJECTS.THE METAPHORS THAT WE CHOOSE REVEAL, IN THEFEATURE TRANSFERS INVOLVED, THE REAL-WORLD HYPOTHESES ON WHICH WEBASE OUR INTERPRETATIONS AND INTERACTIONS WITH THE WORLD.IN SECTIONV OF THE HANDOUT, YOU WILL FIND EXAMPLES OF METAPHORS THAT EXPOSE THERELATIONSHIPS IN THE WORLD THAT THE SPEAKER BELIEVES TO BE TRUE.(8)INTEGRATION IS GOOD BUSINESSINVEST YOUR DAUGHTER(9)FACULTY MEMBERS HAVE TO BE TREATED AS IF THEY WERECOGS IN A MACHINE.(10) FRESHMEN ARE INPUT TO THE UNIVERSITY MECHANISM, ANDTHE ROLE OF THE ADVISOR IS TO PROGRAM THE STUDENT SOTHAT THE OUTPUT IS A SOCIALLY USEFUL CITIZEN.(11) LET MERRILLLYNCH FIGHT FOR YOUR FINANCIAL FREEDOM!ALL OF THESE EXAMPLES, EXCEPT (11) ARE DEHUMANIZING, IN THATA HUMAN BEING IS COMPARED TO AN OBJECT.(8)IS BOTH RACIST AND SEXIST,OtatASSERTING A WOMAN IS A MEDIUM OF FINANCIAL EXCHANGE, LIKE MONEY: THEARACIAL SLUR ASSERTS THAT THE ONLY REASON FOR INTEGRATION IS BECAUSE ITIS FINANCIALLY EXPEDIENT.THE ENTIRE METAPHOR PRESUPPOSES.CAPITALISM,
13AND PLAYS ON THE CULTURAL FEARS OF BLACK MEN.OBVIOUSLY, THE META-PHOR SPEAKS ONLY TO WHITE, MIDDLE-CLASS MALES, AND APPEALS ONLY TOTHEIR BELIEF SYSTEM.(9) AND (10) BOTH REFLECT THE PREDOMINANT META-PHOR CURRENT IN UNIVERSITY SYSTEMS IN AMERICA: BOTH STUDENTS ANDFACULTY ARE OBJECTS TO BE MANIPULATED WITHIN THE LIMITS SET BY THEUNIVERSITY ADMINISTRATION.WE ARE NOT TO FUNCTION AS HUMAN BEINGSWITHIN THESE SYSTEMS AND, IN FACT, (10) EXTENDS THE METAPHOR INTOOUR SOCIETY AS A WHOLE.(11) ALSO ASSUMES CAPITALISM, AS DOES (8),BUT HERE THE APPEAL IS TO PATRIOTIC IDEALS, AND IT ASSERTS THATMONEY, LIKE EVERYTHING ELSE IN OUR CULTURE, IS SOMETHING THAT REQUIRES VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSION.THE METAPHOR PRESUPPOSES THATMONEY IS EQUATABLE WITH LESS TANGIBLE FREEDOMS, AND THAT MONEY ISWORTH A BATTLE.YOU HAVE UNDOUBTEDLY NOTICED, AS YOU'VE READ THROUGH THEEXAMPLES, THAT ALL OF THEM CONTAIN ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES OF MISUSESOF LANGUAGE, AND OVERLAP WITH OTHER CATEGORIES.THIS IS AN ACCIDENT.I DON'T THINK THATIN FACT, I BELIEVE THAT ALL OF THE TYPES OFLANGUAGE MISUSE THAT I HAVE CITED ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE BELIEFSYSTEMS THAT PREDOMINATE IN OUR SOCIETY, AND I THINK THAT THESEBELIEFS REQUIRE, FOR THEIR EXPRESSION, SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES LIKE THEPASSIVE, AND METAPHORS AND LABELS THAT DEFINE PEOPLE AS OBJECTS TOBE EXPLOITED AND USED BY TUOSE WHO CONTROL THIS COUNTRY.THE ONLYde v /opitypers-ensi fiviipl--0 (pp ressive Uses "1WAY TO REDEFINE OURSELVES IS TOSO THAT WE BECOME /ay"AAWARE, CRITICAL LISTENERS AND READERS.-.
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 091 693 CS 201 274 AUTHOR Stanley, Julia P. TITLE The Stylistics of Belief. PUB DATE Apr 74 NOTE 14p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the. Conference on College Composition and Communication (25th, Anaheim, California, April 1974) EDRS PRICE te- 0.75 HC- 1.50 PLUS
Direzione: ( 39) 091 23863701 - Amministrazione:( 39) 091 23864623- Fax: ( 39) 091 238 60840 e-mail: dipartimento.ingegneria@unipa.it- PEC: dipartimento.ingegneria@cert.unipa.it - Codice IPA: 0IHPZZ Direttore: Prof. Giovanni Perrone 4) Mercato elettrico e Smart Grids: nuove sfide e nuovi ruoli per i consumatori – 3 ore Sommario
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DOCUMENT RESUME MD 091 135 CS 201 340 AUTHOR Moore, Betty Jean TITLE The Heinsen-Moore Test of Visual Processing Skills. with Directions for Administration and Scoring. Revised Edition. PUB DATE. 72. NOTE 26p.; Revision of an earlier test designed by Dr. Arthur C. Heinsen, Jr., a practicing o
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Completing Form I-693 Part 7. Civil Surgeon's Contact Information, Certification, and Signature Form I-693 is valid for 2 years from the date of the civil surgeon's signature Date of signature must be no earlier than 60 days before the underlying Form I-485 (adjustment of status application) was filed
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DOCUMENT RESUME ED 313 342 SP 031 693 AUTHOR Dottin, Erskine S. TITLE Raising Proper Educational Questions in the House of. Intellect. PUB DATE 19 Apr 89. NOTE. 33p.; Paper presented at Rivers State Universfl:, Nigeria (April 19, 1989). PUB TYPE Speeches/Conference Papers (150) -- Viewpoints (12J) EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
Security activities in scrum control points 23 Executive summary 23 Scrum control points 23 Security requirements and controls 24 Security activities within control points 25 References 29 Risk Management 30 Executive summary 30 Introduction 30 Existing frameworks for risk and security management in agile software development 34 Challenges and limitations of agile security 37 a suggested model .
