Internal Martial Arts Training And The Reduction Of .
Internal Martial Arts Training and the Reductionof Hostility and Aggression in Martial Arts StudentsJames Hernandez and Kathryn B. Anderson*Our Lady of the Lake UniversityABSTRACT. Traditional martial arts focus on both external (i.e., striking andkicking) and internal (breathing and self-control) techniques to teach abalance between physical and mental techniques. The present study testedwhether the type of martial arts training affects state hostility and aggressivebehavior, and whether this relation differs based on trait aggression withinthe framework of the General Aggression Model (Anderson & Bushman,2002). Following a martial arts lesson in external techniques, half of thestudents at 2 dojos were taught internal breathing techniques, and theother half were not. State hostility and aggression, measured by the numberof exercises they would have another student do if they were the instructor,were subsequently measured. High trait aggressive participants reportedhigher state hostility and rated that they would inflict more push-ups, sit-ups,and leg lifts on others than did low trait aggressive participants (r valuesranged from .33–.65). Participants who practiced internal techniquesreported less state hostility (M 1.85, SD 0.61) than did those engagedin external (and not internal) training (M 2.17, SD 0.65), F(1, 46) 4.37, p .042, η2p .087. The internal technique group also allocatedslightly fewer push-ups and sit-ups (ps .068, .081) than did the externalonly training group. No significant interaction was found between traitaggression and type of technique (p .05). Including internal techniquesin martial arts training may ameliorate the effect that this training may haveon aggressive impulses and behavior.Development of the capacity for self-controlincreases flexibility and adaptability,which may increase the ability to survive(Bushman, 2010). Parents often enroll childrenin martial arts programs to help them learn selfcontrol and experience mastery. Conversely,theory and research on aggression (e.g., Bandura’s,1971, Social Learning Theory) has suggested thatteaching children to physically hurt others withtheir bodies (kicking, punching) may increase thelikelihood that this behavior may be generalizedto other situations, perhaps impulsively. If a*Faculty mentorchild learns self-control strategies while learningmartial arts, the child may be more able to manageaggressive motivation when provoked and mayengage in less subsequent aggressive behavior.Whether a student of martial arts learns self-controlregarding the use of physical force may depend onwhether they are trained in traditional or modernmartial arts.Traditional and Modern Martial ArtsThere are currently two main categories of martial arts: traditional and modern (Fuller, 1988).COPYRIGHT 2015 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 20, NO. 3/ISSN 2164-8204)FALL 2015PSI CHIJOURNAL OFPSYCHOLOGICALRESEARCH169
Martial Arts Training and Aggression Hernandez and AndersonTraditional martial arts instruction emphasizespsychological, spiritual, and nonaggressive aspectsof the art, and modern martial arts tend to focuson competition and aggression (Fuller, 1988).Traditional martial arts training has been shown toreduce aggressive tendencies, and modern martialarts have been shown to increase the propensityto aggress in students who practice the training(Twemlow, Sacco, & Fanogy, 2008).This pattern of results has been consistentlyfound with aggressive youth. Trulson (1986) founddecreases in self-reported aggression and anxiety,and increases in self-esteem in a group of aggressive male adolescents after a 6-month trainingprogram in traditional martial arts. In a similarstudy, Twemlow, Sacco, et al. (2008) found thatthese improvements remained at a 1-year follow-up.In contrast, a group that received modern martialarts training focused entirely on fighting skills actually increased in aggression compared to a controlgroup that engaged in supervised physical activitythat did not change significantly.Different training schools may have different effects. Vertonghen and Theeboom (2010)claimed that how the student is influenced by themartial art could be linked to a specific climatecreated by a traditional teaching of a martial artor a more modern competitive approach. Thesetwo types of approaches greatly influence howstudents respond to many other confrontationsin their lives because martial arts teaches a person defense in case of physical assault, and alsoteaches coping mechanisms that can be utilizedin situations that are not combative. Vertonghenand Theebom described the mastery climate andthe performance climate. The mastery climatefocuses on self-referenced improvement, and effortis rewarded; the performance climate encouragespupils to perform better than others. Therefore, itmay be relevant to look at the motivational climateof different martial arts practices between differentmartial arts and also within the same martial artwhere different approaches are used (i.e., traditional versus modern).FALL 2015PSI CHIJOURNAL OFPSYCHOLOGICALRESEARCH170Benefits of Traditional Martial Arts TrainingTwemlow, Sacco, and colleagues (2008) positedseveral therapeutic effects of martial arts training ina traditional dojo, particularly for troubled youths.Training in traditional martial arts philosophy andcodes of conduct may enhance character development and altruism. Traditional training can alsofoster positive attachments and develop skillsfundamental to transform destructive aggressiveness into self-confidence. The practice of linkingthe mind with the body promotes self-awareness ofphysical movements and control of breathing andemotions such as fear and anger. This training mayteach students how to stay calm when under greatamounts of physical stress, improving the capacityto respond correctly. It is impossible to perfect atechnique when a student is tense, out of control,angry, or inattentive because this leads to beingoff-balance and committing errors, which are oftencorrectable in a balanced mindset. In a traditionaldojo, students must accept that they need to showrespect to the sensei in order to learn a desiredskill. This change in thought is important because,instead of obeying the sensei merely because oftheir position of authority, the student develops adesire for self-discipline and then obeys in orderto learn (Twemlow, Sacco, et al., 2008).Twemlow, Biggs, et al. (2008) evaluated atraditional martial arts program implemented inthree elementary schools named The Gentle WarriorProgram, which was designed to reduce aggressionin children. The sample consisted of 254 childrenin grades 3, 4, and 5, who participated in theGentle Warrior Program as part of a larger schoolviolence intervention. The results indicated thatboys who participated in more martial arts trainingsessions reported a lower frequency of aggressionand greater frequency of helpful “bystanding”(i.e., helpful behavior toward victims of bullying)over time, relative to boys with less frequent participation. The effect of participation on aggressionwas partially mediated by empathy, and empathyfully mediated the participation effect on helpfulbystanding. No significant results were foundfor girls.Twemlow, Biggs, et al. (2008) stated that thestudy provided preliminary support for the useof martial arts-based interventions to addressbullying in schools for boys by teaching empathy,self-control, and peaceful strategies to resolveconflicts. The authors suggested that traditionalmartial arts-based training works because it allowsstudents to role-play in a violent situation (gettinggrabbed or being punched) and decide to reactnonviolently and not reciprocate the violence. Theauthors stated that specific skill training is moreeffective than didactic instruction. Practicing skillsin a safe environment allows students to experiencethe kinds of emotions that they would face in areal-life confrontation and prepares them to reactappropriately in that situation. Thus, mastery ofCOPYRIGHT 2015 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 20, NO. 3/ISSN 2164-8204)
Hernandez and Anderson Martial Arts Training and Aggressiona student’s body and development of associatedself-control are critical aspects of traditional martialarts training.Hoi Jeon Moo Sool Internal TechniquesThe Korean martial art of Hoi Jeon Moo Soolis a traditional martial art that teaches studentstechniques of self-defense, hand-to-hand combat,kicking techniques, weapon (i.e., external) techniques, and breathing and meditation (i.e.,internal) techniques (Myung, 2012). Internaltechniques help the student focus, gain self-control,and decrease their heart rate through breathingtechniques and predetermined movements. External techniques focus on conditioning the handsand feet to strike as well as conditioning the bodyto withstand blows. External techniques includestrikes, throws, and self-defense moves such asescapes from grabs and defense against punchesand kicks (H. Lozano, personal communication,August 16, 2012). Although internal and externaltechniques may blend with each other at times, itis appropriate to consider the techniques as twodifferent categories.To understand how internal and externaltraining techniques can psychologically affectthe individual who is practicing them, it is usefulto consider them as environmental “inputs” thatimpact the individual. In the next section, wedescribe a current model of aggression that provides a framework about how training practices caninfluence the learner’s psychological experiencesand behaviors.The General Aggression Model (GAM)The GAM (Anderson & Bushman, 2002) suggeststhat person and situation variables can increasehostile thoughts, feelings, and/or physiological arousal, which can then affect how a personperceives a situation and impulsive or thoughtfuldecisions about whether to aggress. If the personresponds aggressively, this behavior may then actas a provocative stimulus toward another person,which can then affect another person’s behavioralreaction and recursively act as another situationalinput variable that again affects the original person(see Figure 1).The present experiment tested the GAM.We hypothesized that participants who trainedin external techniques would feel higher statehostility following training than those who trainedin external and internal techniques. Further,participants training in only external techniqueswere anticipated to assign more punitive exercises(push-ups, leg-lifts, and sit-ups) to other studentsthan those who trained in external and internaltechniques. Using the GAM as a framework, a person variable in this experiment was how aggressivethey tend to feel, think, and act across situations,which we will refer to as trait aggression. Twosituation variables were included in the presentexperiment: internal techniques (e.g., breathingdeeply) and external techniques (e.g., punchingand kicking) used in traditional martial arts. Learning internal techniques was expected to decreasesubsequent hostility and aggression more thanthose who did not practice internal techniques.MethodParticipantsParticipants were students from two martial artsstudios in San Antonio, TX. Fifty-two individualsparticipated. A 6-year-old participant was excludedfrom the analysis because she provided littledata, and another participant was removed fromthe sample who did not complete many of thequestionnaires and did not provide demographicinformation. Of the 50 resulting total participants,35 were boys or men and 15 were girls or women.Participants’ ages ranged from 6 (one participant,to whom the questionnaires were read) to 58, withthe mean age of 18.10 (SD 12.63). Most participants identified their ethnicity as Hispanic (n 22)and Mexican American (n 16); six participantsidentified as European American, and six participants did not provide an ethnicity. The number ofmonths that our participants studied martial artsranged from 1 month to 168 months (M 37.64,SD 45.69).ProcedureThe Our Lady of the Lake University InstitutionalReview Board approved the experiment in May2012. The first author received approval from thedirectors (senseis) of two dojos to conduct theexperiment at their studios. Two weeks before theexperiment, participant and guardian consentforms and a description of the general purposeand procedures were made available to the guardians of the dojo students. The first author invitedstudents of each dojo to participate and explainedthe general purpose of the study. The students andparents were told that they could wait until the dayof the experiment to sign the consent form, andwe offered to answer any questions. The voluntarynature of the experiment was emphasized bothCOPYRIGHT 2015 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 20, NO. 3/ISSN 2164-8204)FALL 2015PSI CHIJOURNAL OFPSYCHOLOGICALRESEARCH171
Martial Arts Training and Aggression Hernandez and Andersonbefore and on the days that the experiment wasconducted. All of the students (with their parents’written consent) who attended lessons on the twodays of the experiment, at the two dojos, electedto participate.After all questions were answered and consentforms were collected, participants were asked tocomplete the Trait Aggression Questionnaire.Participants then received their regular externaltraining, which included punching and kicking,and a series of exercises provided by their regularinstructor for about 20 min. Through randomassignment, half of the participants (the externalonly group; n 25) were moved to another roomin the studio where they waited for 5 min for theexperimenter. Participants in this condition thencompleted the State Hostility and Self-Disciplinequestionnaires and debriefing form. All questionnaires were presented orally to the 6-year-oldparticipant.The internal and external group (n 25)then received the internal training of deep, diaphragmatic breathing coupled with arm and legmovements. The regular instructor provided theinternal training in one dojo, and the first authorprovided it in the other dojo. The content of theinternal training provided was identical in bothdojos. Participants were instructed to breathe inthrough their noses and allow their abdomens toextend while inhaling. They then exhaled throughtheir mouths and contracted their stomach muscleswhile exhaling. After practicing this breathing,participants were shown how to move their bodiesto assist the breathing techniques. Participants wereled in inhaling quickly, then slowly, and breathingout forcefully (called a kiyup, which means yell inKorean). These internal techniques were explainedand demonstrated two times. Then, the participantswere led in performing the techniques for approximately 7 min. The internal techniques used in thepresent experiment were those taught to beginnerstudents of Hoi Jeon Moo Sool. After completingthe internal training for 7 min, the participants inthis group completed the State Hostility and SelfDiscipline questionnaires, and the debriefing form.FALL 2015PSI CHIJOURNAL OFPSYCHOLOGICALRESEARCH172MeasuresA demographic questionnaire was administeredthat included questions for ethnicity, age, andparticipant sex, as well as the number of monthsor years that the person had engaged in martialarts training.Trait aggression. Trait aggression of theparticipants was measured with the 29-itemAggression Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992).Participants rated the extent to which each statement was characteristic of them (1 uncharacteristicto 7 extremely characteristic). A sample item was“If somebody hits me, I hit back.” This measurecontains four subscales: Physical Aggression, VerbalAggression, Anger, and Hostility. Two items onthe scale are phrased in a nonaggressive fashionand were reverse-scored, and mean variables werecalculated for the whole scale, as well as the foursubscales. The scale was found to be high in internal consistency in the present sample, Cronbach’salpha .92, as well as for each subscale (PhysicalAggression (.76), Verbal Aggression (.78), Anger(.76), and Hostility (.86).A median split variable was created for TraitAggression in order to test for interaction effectswith type of technique on the state hostility andaggression measures. All participants who reporteda trait aggression score at or above the median of2.95 on the Buss Perry Aggression Questionnairewere labeled high-trait aggression (n 26) and allwho scored below were labeled low-trait aggression(n 24) for this variable.State hostility. Following martial arts training(see Procedure section), current hostile affectwas measured with the 35-item State HostilityQuestionnaire (Anderson, Deuser, & DeNeve,1995). Participants rated agreement with “I feel”statements such as “I feel outraged” using a Likertscale with the anchors of (1 strongly disagree to5 strongly agree). Three participants voiced confusion regarding the item “I feel vexed.” Therefore,FIGURE 1The General Aggression ModelInputsPersonSituationSocialEncounterPresent Internal State:AffectRoutesCognitionOutcomesAppraisal ActionNote. Figure 1 from “Human Aggression” by C. A. Anderson and B. J. Bushman, 2002, AnnualReview of Psychology, 53, p. 34. Copyright by Annual Reviews. Reprinted with permission.COPYRIGHT 2015 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 20, NO. 3/ISSN 2164-8204)
Hernandez and Anderson Martial Arts Training and Aggressionthat item was removed from the analyses. Elevenitems were reverse worded, and thus were reversescored. A mean state hostility variable was created.The Cronbach’s alpha for this measure was .91.Aggressive behavior. We created a SelfDiscipline Questionnaire that asked participantsto imagine that they were the instructor of amartial arts class and that it was their job to helpthe student learn more self-discipline. They werethen asked “how many push-ups would you havethe student do?” Participants then circled a numberbetween 1 and 50 push-ups, or wrote in the numberif greater than 50. They then completed the samequestion for sit-ups and leg-lifts. This assignmentof exercises (which can cause discomfort) was theoperationalization of aggression. This is similar tomeasures of aggression that involved delivery ofunpleasant stimuli in a laboratory context such asallocating the amount of hot sauce that a target isto ingest (White-Ajmani & Bursik, 2014).Design OverviewThe experiment utilized a 2 x 2 between-subjectsdesign. The experimental independent variablewas the type of technique taught with the levelsof (a) external-only and (b) internal and externaltraining. A correlational personality independentvariable of trait aggression (with 4 subscale measures of Physical Aggression, Verbal Aggression,Anger, and Hostility) was also measured. The traitaggression measure was a continuous variable andwas dichotomized into high and low categories fortwo-way Analyses of Variance (ANOVAs) to testfor interaction effects with technique type. Thedependent variables were (a) state hostility and(b) the number of push-ups, leg-lifts, and sit-upsallocated to another student in the class (as ameasure of aggression).Resultsfirst conducted. Then the effects of the type ofmartial arts technique and the Trait Aggression xTechnique Type interaction were tested with twoway ANOVAs.Correlational AnalysesBivariate correlations were conducted with all continuous variables including age, number of monthsin martial arts, mean responses on the Buss PerryAggression Questionnaire, and its four subscales,state hostility mean ratings, and three aggressiondependent variables of number of push-ups, leglifts, and sit-ups allocated to another student. Allof the trait aggression subscales were significantlypositively correlated with each other, all ps .001.Trait aggression was significantly positively correlated with state hostility, r(48) .65, p .001(see Table 1). As predicted, trait aggression, statehostility, and all trait aggression subscales were eachsignificantly positively correlated with at least twoof the aggression measures of number of push-ups,sit-ups, and leg-lifts allocated to a peer student (seeTable 2). Thus, participants with more aggressivepersonalities and those who felt higher state hostility inflicted more discomfort through exercise ina hypothetical situation than did those with lessTABLE 1Correlations Between Trait Aggression,State Hostility, Months in Martial Arts (MA), andPush-Ups, Sit-Ups, and Leg-Lifts AllocatedState hostilityMA *-.16.44**.49***.33*State hostility —-.25.32*.32*.22MA .74***Sit-ups————.48****Note. *p .05. **p .01. ***p .001.We conducted a frequency analysis to ensure thatall data were entered correctly, and we looked foroutliers using stem-and-leaf plots. No far outliers(Tukey, 1977) were found. Descriptive statisticsfor the measures were as follows: Trait Aggression(M 3.30; SD 1.21), State Hostility (M 2.01;SD 0.64), push-ups (M 35.82; SD 18.94; range10–100), sit-ups (M 41.26; SD 21.01; range20–100) and leg-lifts (M 33.38; SD 16.65; range10–99).To test how the continuous variables andsubscales of the trait aggression measure wererelated to each other, correlational analyses wereTABLE 2Correlations Between Trait AggressionSubscales, State Hostility, and Push-Ups,Sit-Ups, and Leg-Lifts AllocatedTrait aggression subscalePush-upsSit-upsLeg-liftsPhysical aggressionState hostility.64***.37.31.19Verbal **.29*.32*.51***.27.39.38.38****FALL 2015**Note. p .05. p .01. p .001.******COPYRIGHT 2015 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 20, NO. 3/ISSN 2164-8204)PSI CHIJOURNAL OFPSYCHOLOGICALRESEARCH173
Martial Arts Training and Aggression Hernandez and AndersonFALL 2015PSI CHIJOURNAL OFPSYCHOLOGICALRESEARCH174Tests of Hypotheses: ANOVAsFour two-way ANOVAs were conducted to test themain effects and interactions of type of techniqueand the dichotomous trait aggression variableon the dependent variables of state hostility andallocation of push-ups, sit-ups, and leg-lifts. Consistent with the correlational findings, a significantmain effect of trait aggression was found for alldependent variables except for number of leg-liftsallocated. High-trait aggression was associated withmore aggression than was low-trait aggression, allps .038. No significant interactions were foundbetween trait aggression and technique type. However, the means were in the hypothesized direction.Participants in the external technique conditionwho were high in trait aggression reported morestate hostility and allocated more exercises than theother conditions. Participants low in trait aggression who were randomly assigned to the internaland external technique condition were the leastaggressive in their responses. The technique typemain effects are described below.Technique type on state hostility. A significantmain effect of technique was found on state hostility, F(1, 46) 4.37, p .042, η2p .087. As hypothesized, participants in the external-only conditionreported more state hostility (M 2.17, SD 0.65)than did those in the internal/external condition(M 1.85, SD 0.61; see Figure 2).Technique type on allocated push-ups, sit-ups,and leg-lifts. A marginally significant main effect ofcondition on push-ups was found, F(1, 46) 3.49,p .068, η2p .071. Participants in the externalonly condition allocated slightly more push-ups(M 40.56, SD 23.36) than those in the internal/external condition (M 31.08, SD 11.81; seeFigure 3).A marginally significant technique type maineffect was also found for allocated sit-ups, F(1, 46) 3.19, p .081, η 2p .065. Participants withexternal-only training allocated significantly moresit-ups (M 46.20, SD 23.46) than those withinternal/external training (M 36.32, SD 17.33;see Figure 4). No main effect of condition onallocated leg-lifts was found, p .296.Participant Sex and EthnicityNo significant sex effects were found on any of theindependent or dependent variables, all ps .388.Meaningful comparisons could not be made acrossethnicity because most participants self-identifiedas Hispanic or Mexican American (76%), and sixparticipants (12%) did not indicate their ethnicity.DiscussionApplication of the GAMAs expected, participants who had more aggressive personalities were higher in trait aggression,reported more state hostility, and allocated moreexercises to a peer student than did those lower intrait aggression. Consistent with the person route ofthe GAM, this finding provided further evidencethat trait aggression predicts state hostility. It alsoextended the literature in demonstrating that traitaggression predicts justified aggression as measuredby punitive exercise allocated to another person inorder to build the target’s self-discipline.FIGURE 2Effect of Type of Technique on State Hostility2.82.62.42.2State Hostilityaggressive personalities and who felt lower statehostility. All of the allocated exercise aggressionmeasures were also significantly positively correlated with each other, all ps .01, which suggestedthat they measured similar constructs.Interestingly, the number of months thatparticipants had taken martial arts classes wassignificantly negatively correlated with assignmentof push-ups, r(43) -.32, p .034, and leg-lifts,r(43) -.44, p .003. Perhaps students who hadbeen in martial arts classes for a longer period oftime better understood the pain associated withbeing assigned many push-ups and leg-lifts. Agewas significantly negatively correlated with statehostility, r(47) -.28, p .048. Younger participantsfelt more hostile after the training than did olderparticipants. Age was marginally negatively correlated with trait aggression, r(47) -.24, p .091,and the number of push-ups allocated, r(47) -.25,p .089. Age was not related to any other variables,all ps .170.2.01.81.61.41.21.0COPYRIGHT 2015 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 20, NO. 3/ISSN 2164-8204)External OnlyInternal/External
Hernandez and Anderson Martial Arts Training and AggressionAs hypothesized, participants who receivedinternal training reported feeling slightly lesshostile and allocated slightly fewer push-ups and situps to another student after receiving the internaltraining than did participants who only receivedexternal training. This implied that martial artstraining that includes internal breathing techniques may ameliorate the external training effectson aggressive motivation and behavior. Internaltraining may reduce actual and perceived physiological arousal and negative affect. According tothe GAM, reducing physiological arousal and statehostility may increase the likelihood that a personwill interpret an ambiguous action of another person as nonthreatening as opposed to someone whohas not practiced internal techniques. Learninginternal techniques may enable a person to makemore thoughtful decisions when provoked becausethey may respond in a more relaxed and controlledfashion rather than in a fight or flight responseto a potential threat. Consistent with Twemlow,Biggs, et al. (2008), integrating internal martial artstraining into school physical education programsmay therefore reduce bullying and overall aggression in students.Limitations and Suggestions for Future ResearchAn important limitation that could be rectifiedin future research pertained to a procedural difference in the administration of the conditions.Participants exposed to both the external and theinternal training experienced two training typesand had two more minutes after the training beforecompleting the dependent variables than didthose who experienced the external-only training.It is possible that the slight time difference priorto completion of the dependent variables fromthe external training could have confounded theeffects of the manipulation. Future experimentalresearch could include a factorial design thattests the effects of internal and external trainingexperienced separately and sequentially, comparedto neither training type, on aggressive motivationand behavior. It would be important to ensurethat the time between the training and when thedependent variables are administered is consistent.Physiological arousal following physical exertionassociated with each training type should bestrongly considered related to the timing of thesubsequent completion of aggression measures.Arousal, particularly when a person is not awareof the arousal, has been associated with increasedaggression (Zillmann & Bryant, 1974).Our measurements were not based onreal-world behavior but rather on self-reportedbehavioral intention measures that assessed whatthe participant would do as the dojo instructor.Another limitation was the small sample size, whichmight have reduced the likelihood of detectinginteractions due to low statistical power. Furthermore, most of our participants were Hispanic,which makes the results difficult to generalize tomembers of other ethnic groups. Also, the specificinternal breathing techniques used in the experiment were developed in the Hoi Jeon Moo Sooltradition so using techniques from other martialarts approaches may yield different results. Themeasures used were normed for college-agedstudents, thus the 6-year-old participant had a difficult time understanding the vocabulary and neededexplanations of some words. Finally, participantsfrom one dojo were less familiar with leg-lifts thanFIGURE 4Effect of Type of Technique on Sit-Ups Allocated6065556050555045454035302520External OnlyInternal/ExternalNumber of Allocated Sit-UpsNumber of Allocated Push-UpsFIGURE 3Effect of Type of Technique on Push-Ups Allocated4035External OnlyInternal/External30252015
Traditional martial arts instruction emphasizes psychological, spiritual, and nonaggressive aspects of the art, and modern martial arts tend to focus on competition and aggression (Fuller, 1988). Traditional martial arts training has been shown to reduce aggressive tendencies, and modern martial
promotion of Chinese martial arts in modern times. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, China established a major martial arts management organization, taking martial arts as the main promotion item. Through the excavation, sorting, inheritance and promotion of martial arts, a martial arts competition model was initially formed.
1. Martial Arts Traditions: A Survey. 'Martial Arts', as the name suggests, are popular art forms that give training in different kinds and dimensions of fighting — fighting with a spear or a sword, physical combat, resisting cavalry attack, single combat or combat with many, etc. As such, the martial arts apart from being sources of popular entertainment also provide training in skills required by professionals, including soldiers.
Examples of Martial Law Martial Law in the U.S. There are quite a few examples of Martial Law being imposed. However, those were isolated incidents and not nation-wide, as we expect the next Martial Law to be when it will hit us unnoticed. General Andrew Jackson declared martial law in New Orleans during the war of 1812 and Mayor Roswell B .
There’s Zumba, Pilates, Cage Fitness, kickboxing, and even martial arts. Yes, martial arts is a well-balanced workout that includes core and endurance training. Our martial arts facility boasts many opportunities that your typical workout may not offer. Although you train in a class setti
One often suggested response to bullying is martial arts training (Burrows, 2011; Sayer, 2008; Finberg, 1999). While there are a multitude of popular and anecdotal stories about martial arts being a positive activity to reduce bullying, martial arts has not been fully researched in a project directly related to bullying.
blue triangle, on the way of Martial Arts, but the peak of Martial Arts is much higher. It is higher because it is connected not only with the art of battle but also with the art of life. Advancement on the Path of Combat Martial Arts does not end with getting the Black Belt. Real Master Black Belt at Combat Martial Arts is a Master of life.
Comparative Cultural Analysis(1972), Feuding and Warfare(1991), and The Ultimate Coercive Sanction: A Cross-Cultural Study of Capital Punishment (1986). Joseph R. Svinth Editor, Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences; martial arts history, cul- tural studies; Kronos: A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Com
Academic writing is a formal style of writing and is generally written in a more objective way, focussing on facts and not unduly influenced by personal opinions. It is used to meet the assessment requirements for a qualification; the publ ication requirements for academic literature such as books and journals; and documents prepared for conference presentations. Academic writing is structured .
