Revolution And Enlightenment - World History
Revolution andEnlightenment1550–1800Key EventsAs you read this chapter, look for the key events in the history of the ScientificRevolution and the Enlightenment. The ideas of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment laid the foundation fora modern worldview based on rationalism and secularism. Enlightenment thought led some rulers to advocate such natural rights as equalitybefore the law and freedom of religion. The American colonies formed a new nation and ratified the Constitution of theUnited States.The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today. Scientists use research techniques that are based on the scientific method. The intellectuals of the Enlightenment advocated the rights of the individual, pavingthe way for the rise of democracy. Montesquieu’s idea of separation of powers strongly influenced the writing of theConstitution of the United States.World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 10 video,“New Scientific Thinking,” chronicles the origins of the Scientific Revolution inEurope and its impact on scientific thinking worldwide.1620Francis Baconpublishes theNovum Organum1633The ChurchcondemnsGalileo’steachings1687Isaac Newtonpublishes thePrincipiaFrancis Bacon15501543Nicholas Copernicuspresents a new viewof the universe157516001625165016751666Royal Academy ofScience foundedin FranceEngraving of Copernicansystem, 1661290
Louis XIV at the French Royal Academy of SciencesDenis Diderot17001751Diderot becomeseditor of theEncyclopedia172517501759James Wolfe diesin battle outsideQuebec, Canada1763The SevenYears’ WarendsHISTORY1788The Constitution of theUnited States is ratifiedby nine states17751776American coloniesdeclare independence from Britain1800Chapter Overview18251792Mary Wollstonecraftpublishes A Vindicationof the Rights of WomenVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory—ModernTimes Web site atwh.mt.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 10–Chapter Overview topreview chapter information.British general,James Wolfe291
Galileo sitsbefore theInquisitionin Rome.Galileo on TrialThe Italian scientist Galileo found himself in troublewith the authorities of the Catholic Church. Galileobelieved in a new worldview. He explained to a friend, “Ihold the Sun to be situated motionless in the center of therevolution of the celestial bodies, while . . . Earth rotates onits axis and revolves about the Sun.” Moreover, “nothingphysical that sense-experience puts before our eyes . . . oughtto be called in question (much less condemned) upon the testimony of passages from the Bible.”The Catholic Church had a different view. In 1632, Galileo,68 years old and in ill health, was called before the dreadedInquisition in Rome. He was kept waiting for two monthsbefore he was tried and found guilty of heresy and disobedience. The report of the Inquisition said: “The view that theSun stands motionless at the center of the universe is foolish,philosophically false, and utterly heretical, because contraryto Holy Scripture.”Completely shattered by the experience, Galileo recantedin 1633: “With a sincere heart I curse and detest the saiderrors contrary to the Holy Church, and I swear that I willnevermore in future say or assert anything that may give riseto a similar suspicion of me.” Legend holds that when he leftthe trial room, Galileo muttered to himself, “And yet it [Earth]does move!”292Why It MattersGalileo was one of the scientists ofthe seventeenth century who set theWestern world on a new path. Thatpath, known as the Scientific Revolution, developed a new way ofviewing the universe.In the eighteenth century, a groupof intellectuals used the ideas of theScientific Revolution to reexamineall aspects of life and began whatcame to be called the Age ofEnlightenment. The ideas of theEnlightenment helped foster theAmerican and French Revolutions.History and You The philosopher Adam Smith used Enlightenment ideas to identify economiclaws. Read the front page, businesssection, and classifieds of a newspaper. Create a poster with articlesand advertisements reflectingSmith’s economic principles.
The ScientificRevolutionGuide to ReadingMain IdeaPeople to IdentifyReading Strategy The Scientific Revolution gaveEuropeans a new way to viewhumankind’s place in the universe.Ptolemy, Nicholas Copernicus, GalileoGalilei, Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle,Margaret Cavendish, Maria Winkelmann,René Descartes, Francis BaconSummarizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to identify the contributions of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo,and Newton to the development of a newconcept of the universe.Key Termsgeocentric, Ptolemaic system, heliocentric,universal law of gravitation, rationalism,scientific method, inductive reasoningPlaces to LocatePoland, PaduaCopernicusPreview QuestionsKeplerGalileo1. How did the Scientific Revolution begin?2. What is the scientific method?Preview of Events 1545 15601543Vesalius publishes On theFabric of the Human Body 1575 15901610Galileo’s discoveriesare publishedNewton 1605 16201628Harvey publishes On theMotion of the Heart and Blood 163516321637Galileo facesDescartes publishesthe Inquisition Discourse on MethodVoices from the PastIn 1610, Galileo described what he had observed with his newly devised telescope:Now let us review the observations made during the past two months. . . . Let us“speak first of that surface of the Moon which faces us. For greater clarity I distinguishtwo parts of this surface, a lighter and a darker. . . . [T]he darker part makes the Moonappear covered with spots. . . . From observation of these spots . . . I have been led tothe opinion and conviction that the surface of the Moon is not smooth, uniform, andprecisely spherical as a great number of philosophers believe it and the other heavenlybodies to be, but is uneven, rough, and full of cavities, not unlike the face of . . . Earth,relieved by chains of mountains and deep valleys.”—Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo, Stillman Drake, ed., 1957Galileo GalileiGalileo’s observations helped to create a new view of the universe in the seventeenth century.Background to the RevolutionIn the Middle Ages, many educated Europeans took an intense interest in theworld around them. However, these “natural philosophers,” as medieval scientists were known, did not make observations of the natural world. These scientistsrelied on a few ancient authorities—especially Aristotle—for their scientificknowledge. A number of changes in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries causedCHAPTER 10Revolution and Enlightenment293
the natural philosophers to abandon their old viewsand develop new ones.Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek aswell as Latin and thus had access to newly discoveredworks by Ptolemy (TAH luh mee), Archimedes, andPlato. These writings made it obvious that someancient thinkers had disagreed with Aristotle andother accepted authorities of the Middle Ages.Other developments also encouraged new ways ofthinking. Technical problems that required carefulobservation and accurate measurements, such as calculating the amount of weight that ships could hold,served to stimulate scientific activity. Then, too, theinvention of new instruments, such as the telescopeand microscope, made fresh scientific discoveriespossible. Above all, the printing press helped spreadnew ideas quickly and easily.Mathematics played a very important role in thisrevolution in science. The study of mathematics waspromoted in the Renaissance by the rediscovery ofthe works of ancient mathematicians. NicholasCopernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, andIsaac Newton were all great mathematicians whobelieved that the secrets of nature were written inthe language of mathematics. After studying and,sometimes, discarding the ideas of the ancientmathematicians, these intellectuals developed newtheories that became the foundation of the ScientificRevolution. Sometimes historians refer to thisperiod as the Age of Reason.Reading Check Evaluating What changes in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries helped the natural philosophersdevelop new views?A Revolution in AstronomyEspecially significant in the Scientific Revolutionwere discoveries in astronomy. These discoverieswould overturn the conception of the universe heldby Westerners in the Middle Ages.The Ptolemaic SystemPtolemy, who lived in thesecond century A.D., was the greatest astronomer ofantiquity. Using his ideas, as well as those of Aristotleand of Christianity, the philosophers of the MiddlePtolemaic UniverseFixed StarsPrime oryThese astronomers, Ptolemy (left) and Copernicus (shown onpage 295), were separated in time by approximately 1,400 years.Both men had a major impact on the way people viewed theirplace in the universe. What elements do you see in the twoillustrations that help to convey to the viewer the importanceof the two men and their scientific discoveries?294CHAPTER 10Revolution and Enlightenment
Ages had constructed a model of the universe knownlater as the Ptolemaic (TAH luh MAY ik) system.This system is called geocentric because it placesEarth at the center of the universe.In the Ptolemaic system, the universe is a series ofconcentric spheres—spheres one inside the other.Earth is fixed, or motionless, at the center of thesespheres. The spheres are made of a crystal-like, transparent substance, in which the heavenly bodies—pure orbs of light—are embedded. For example, theMoon is embedded in the first sphere, Mercury in thesecond, Venus in the third, and the Sun in the fourth.The rotation of the spheres makes these heavenlybodies rotate about the earth and move in relation toone another.The tenth sphere in the Ptolemaic system was the“prime mover,” which moved itself and gave motionto the other spheres. Beyond the tenth sphere wasHeaven, where God and all the saved souls resided.God was at one end of the universe, then, andhumans were at the center. Humans had been givenpower over the earth, but their real purpose was toachieve salvation.Copernicus and KeplerIn May 1543, NicholasCopernicus, a native of Poland, published hisfamous book, On the Revolutions of the HeavenlySpheres. Copernicus, a mathematician, felt that thegeocentric system was too complicated. He believedthat his heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception ofthe universe offered a more accurate explanationthan did the Ptolemaic system.Copernicus argued that the Sun, not Earth, was atthe center of the universe. The planets revolvedaround the Sun. The Moon, however, revolvedaround Earth. Moreover, according to Copernicus,the apparent movement of the Sun around Earth wasreally caused by the daily rotation of Earth on its axisand the journey of Earth around the Sun each year.The next step in destroying the Ptolemaic systemwas taken by the German mathematician JohannesKepler. Kepler used detailed astronomical data toarrive at his laws of planetary motion. His observations confirmed that the Sun was at the center of theuniverse and also added new information. In his firstlaw, Kepler showed that the orbits of the planetsaround the Sun were not circular, as CopernicusCopernican UniverseFixed are the illustrations of two different models ofthe universe on the previous page and this page,then answer the questions below.1. Compare and Contrast Identify as many specific similarities and differences as you can find inthe two models.2. Explaining Explain the changes in the way peopleviewed the universe that resulted from the mathematical and scientific discoveries of Copernicus.CHAPTER 10Revolution and Enlightenment295
The Church ordered Galileo to abandon theCopernican idea. The Copernican system threatenedthe Church’s entire conception of the universe andseemed to contradict the Bible. In the Copernicanview, the heavens were no longer a spiritual worldbut a world of matter. Humans were no longer at thecenter of the universe, and God was no longer in aspecific place.In spite of the Church’s position, by the 1630s and1640s, most astronomers had come to accept theheliocentric conception of the universe. However, theproblem of explaining motion in the universe had notbeen solved, and the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, andGalileo had yet to be tied together. This would bedone by an Englishman who has long been considered the greatest genius of the Scientific Revolution.NewtonGalileo displays his drawings to the clergy.had thought. Rather, the orbits were elliptical(egg-shaped), with the Sun toward the end of theellipse instead of at the center. This finding, knownas Kepler’s First Law, contradicted the circular orbitsand crystal-like spheres that were central to the Ptolemaic system.GalileoScientists could now think in terms of planets revolving around the Sun in elliptical orbits.Important questions remained unanswered, however. What are the planets made of? How does oneexplain motion in the universe? An Italian scientistanswered the first question.Galileo Galilei taught mathematics. He was thefirst European to make regular observations of theheavens using a telescope. With this tool, Galileomade a remarkable series of discoveries: mountainson the Moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter,and sunspots.Galileo’s observations seemed to destroy yetanother aspect of the Ptolemaic conception. Heavenly bodies had been seen as pure orbs of light.Instead, it appeared that they were composed ofmaterial substance, just as Earth was.Galileo’s discoveries, published in The Starry Messenger in 1610, did more to make Europeans aware ofthe new view of the universe than did the works ofCopernicus and Kepler. In the midst of his newfoundfame, however, Galileo found himself under suspicion by the authorities of the Catholic Church.296CHAPTER 10Revolution and EnlightenmentBorn in 1642, Isaac Newton showed fewsigns of brilliance until he attended Cambridge University. Later, he became a professor of mathematicsat the university and wrote his major work, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. This work isknown simply as the Principia, by the first word of itsLatin title.In the first book of the Principia, Newton definedthe three laws of motion that govern the planetarybodies, as well as objects on Earth. Crucial to his wholeargument was the universal law of gravitation. Thislaw explains why the planetary bodies do not go off instraight lines but instead continue in elliptical orbitsabout the Sun. The law states, in mathematical terms,that every object in the universe is attracted to everyother object by a force called gravity.Isaac Newton analyzing light rays
Newton had shown that one universal law, mathematically proved, could explain all motion in theuniverse. At the same time, Newton’s ideas created anew picture of the universe. It was now seen as onehuge, regulated, uniform machine that workedaccording to natural laws. Newton’s world-machineconcept dominated the modern worldview until thetwentieth century, when Albert Einstein’s concept ofrelativity created a new picture of the universe.Reading Check Identifying Name the fourgreat mathematicians who had a profound impact onastronomy.Breakthroughs inMedicine and ChemistryA science of chemistry also arose in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Robert Boyle wasone of the first scientists to conduct controlledexperiments. His pioneering work onthe properties of gases led to Boyle’s Law.This generalization states that the volume of a gas varies with the pressureexerted on it. In the eighteenth century,Antoine Lavoisier invented a systemof naming the chemical elements,much of which is still usedtoday. He is regarded by manyas the founder of modernchemistry.Reading Check DescribingHow did Vesalius and Harvey disproveA revolution in medicine alsomany of Galen’s theories?began in the sixteenth century.Medicine in the Late MiddleAges was dominated by theteachings of the Greek physicianGalen, who had lived in the second century A.D. Galen hadrelied on animal, rather thanWomen as well ashuman, dissection to arrive at amen were involved inpicture of human anatomy, andthe Scientific Revolution.he was wrong in many instances.One of the most promiThe new anatomy of the sixnent female scientists ofteenth century was based on thethe seventeenth century,work of Andreas Vesalius. In hisMargaret Cavendish,1543 book, On the Fabric of thecame from an aristocraticHuman Body, Vesalius discussedfamily. She wrote a numwhat he had found when disber of works on scientificDrawings such as this from Vesalius’s On the Fabricsecting human bodies while hematters, including Obserof the Human Body did much to revolutionizewas a professor of surgery at thevations Upon Experimentalknowledge of human anatomy and medicine.University of Padua.Philosophy.Vesalius presented a careful and accurate examiIn her work, Cavendish was especially critical ofnation of the individual organs and general structurethe growing belief that humans, through science,of the human body. His “hands-on” approachwere the masters of nature: “We have no power at allenabled him to overthrow some of Galen’s theories.over natural causes and effects . . . for man is but aNevertheless, Vesalius still clung to Galen’s errosmall part, his powers are but parneous idea that two kinds of blood flowed in theticular actions of Nature, and heveins and arteries.cannot have a supreme andWilliam Harvey’s reputation rests on his book Onabsolute power.”the Motion of the Heart and Blood, published in 1628.In Germany, many of theHarvey’s work was based on close observations andwomen who were involved inexperiments. Harvey showed that the heart—not thescience were astronomers.liver, as Galen had thought—was the beginning pointThese women had receivedfor the circulation of blood in the body. He also provedthe opportunity to becomethat the same blood flows in both veins and arteries.astronomers from working inMost important, he showed that the blood makes afamily observatories, whereMargaret Cavendishcomplete circuit as it passes through the body.they had been trained by theirWomen andthe Origins ofModern ScienceCHAPTER 10Revolution and Enlightenment297
fathers or husbands. Between 1650 and 1710, womenmade up 14 percent of all German astronomers.The most famous of the female astronomers in Germany was Maria Winkelmann. She received trainingin astronomy from a self-taught astronomer. Herchance to be a practicing astronomer came when shemarried Gottfried Kirch, Prussia’s foremost astronomer, and became his assistant.Winkelmann made some original contributions toastronomy, including the discovery of a comet. Herhusband described the discovery:Early in the morning (about 2:00 . .) the sky“was clear and starry. Some nights before, I hadAMobserved a variable star, and my wife (as I slept)wanted to find and see it for herself. In so doing, shefound a comet in the sky. At which time she wokeme, and I found that it was indeed a comet. . . . I wassurprised that I had not seen it the night before.”When her husband died, Winkelmann applied fora position as assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy. She was highly qualified, but as a woman—with no university degree—she was denied the post.Members of the Berlin Academy feared that theywould set a bad example by hiring a woman.“Mouths would gape,” they said.Winkelmann’s problems with the Berlin Academyreflect the obstacles women faced in being acceptedas scientists. Such work was considered to be chieflyfor males. In the view of most people in the seventeenth century, a life devoted to any kind of scholarship was at odds with the domestic duties womenwere expected to perform.Reading Check Summarizing What did MargaretCavendish and Maria Winkelmann contribute to the ScientificRevolution?Descartes and ReasonThe new conception of the universe brought aboutby the Scientific Revolution strongly influenced theWestern view of humankind. Nowhere is this moreevident than in the work of the seventeenth-centuryFrench
Revolution and the Enlightenment. The ideas of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment laid the foundation for a modern worldview based on rationalism and secularism. Enlightenment thought led some rulers to advocate such natural rights as equality before the law and freedom of religion.
Revolution: Between the 16th and 18th centuries, a series of revolutions helped usher in the modern era of Western history First was a revolution in understanding, called the Scientific Revolution Second was a revolution of ideas, called the Enlightenment Third was a revolution in action—the American Revolution Previewing Themes
The Enlightenment: How did Enlightenment ideas change intellectual thought, including views about the role of government. Which Enlightenment ideas form the basis for our U.S. government? How did Enlightenment ideas inspire commoners to overthrow the French monarchy? The French Revolution: What were the political, economic,
-set of books to which Enlightenment thinkers contribute essays Encyclopedia articles anger French government, Catholic Church Encyclopedia helps spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe A World of Ideas The Enlightenment Spreads Section-3 Intellectual Life in Paris Paris becomes center of the Enlightenment during 1700s
Enlightenment has its own unique history and it produced many remarkable intellectuals. Furthermore, the Enlightenment had major impact on future events, continuing to this day. Some of the key themes of the Enlightenment include the belief in progress and tolerance and faith in reason. One historian notes that Enlightenment thinkers were trying
Enlightenment and Revolution, 1550–1789 By the mid-18th century, new ideas about human society and government were sweeping across Europe. This intellectual movement, known as the Enlightenment, gave birth to revolutionary ideas like democracy and individual rights. The map at the right shows cities where Enlightenment ideas were flourishing .
The Enlightenment French Revolution The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged in western Europe in the mid 1600s and provided and ideological basis for the French Revolution. Other notables of the scientific Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Edmond Halley, William Herschel, Robert .
The Enlightenment (The Age of Reason) What was the Enlightenment? ! What does “enlightenment” mean? " Higher understanding of a particular idea ! The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe during the mid-to-late 1700ʼs " Changing ideas of government and society .
ABR ¼ American Board of Radiology; ARRS ¼ American Roentgen Ray Society; RSNA ¼ Radiological Society of North America. Table 2 Designing an emergency radiology facility for today Determine location of radiology in the emergency department Review imaging statistics and trends to determine type and volume of examinations in emergency radiology Prepare a comprehensive architectural program .
