ShuttleKickers: Exploring Social Persuasions To Encourage .
ickers: Exploring Social Persuasionsto Encourage Physical ActivitiesXipei Ren, Yuan Lu, Aarnout Brombacher, Tilde BekkerDept. of Industrial Design, Eindhoven University of TechnologyPostbus 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, the Netherlands{x.ren, y.lu, a.c.brombacher, m.m.bekker} @ tue.nlIn the HCI domain, many researches have been carried out on how to apply Persuasive Technology(PT) to stimulate a more active lifestyle. Regarding collectivist cultures, social influence has beenconsidered as one of the most impactful factors among others in PT. Within one societal context,however, different individuals may need different motivational mechanisms based on socialpersuasion. In this paper, we designed the prototype ShuttleKickers embedding different socialpersuasive mechanisms to stimulate more physical activities in China. Subsequently, weconducted the field-test of our prototype with sportive groups and sedentary groups, identified byTranstheoretical Model, which results in a set of implications on how to apply social persuasionsfor active behaviours for these two different groups respectively.Social persuasion; persuasive technology; physical activity; transtheotetical model; exploratory study1. INTRODUCTIONexamples have been worked on personalizing PTsby comparing national cultural difference to developcultural-related persuasive strategies (Khaled et al.2009; Orji & Mandryk 2014), by tailoring persuasiveprinciples according to distinct user types (Orji et al.2013), and by using persuasive profiles to adaptthe ways of persuasions (Kaptein et al. 2015), weapproachourcontextbasedontheTranstheoretical Model (TTM) (Prochaska & Velicer1997) to investigate on how to tailor social-relatedPTs for differently motivated individuals in China toencourage physical active behaviours.During the last decades, chronic diseases, such astype 2 diabetes, have become increasingly urgentglobal issues. Sedentary lifestyles have beenrecognised as one of the main causes of somechronic diseases. Thus motivating people to movetowards an active lifestyle is considered as acrucial solution when preventing the increase ofsuch diseases (Roberts & Barnard 2005).In HCI, research has shown that PersuasiveTechnology (PT) offers strong advantages overother means of persuasion (Fogg 2002). Forexample, it was acknowledged that computermediated systems could facilitate social activities tosupport people to affect each other’s behaviour andattitude. Consequently, there have been growingefforts on investigating how to design product- orcomputer-mediated persuasion to leverage socialinfluence in order to encourage behaviour change.Four important points can be identified from earlierworks. First, instead of an independent event,behaviour change moves through a series ofstages from precontemplation to contemplation, topreparation, to action, and eventually tomaintenance stage, as defined by TranstheoreticalModel (TTM) (Prochaska & Velicer 1997). Second,in the case of physical activity (PA) promotion, tion, and preparation stage) are oftenused to treat people who are living at a sedentaryor irregular active level on daily basis, while theaction and maintenance stage are used to treatpeople who are living regularly physical active(Woods et al. 2002). Third, as the critical processesto support TTM, social factors are interweaved withbehaviour change. Fourth, people at differentstages hold different opinions and behavedifferently towardsthesameintervention(McConnaughy et al. 1983).Particularly in the collectivist cultures such asChina, it is very common to apply social persuasionas an influential PT in stimulating certain behaviourchange. Although most of the cultural-related PTresearches accommodate social persuasion in“one-size-fits-all” solution, it is too complex toignore other factors within the same culture whenmotivating a certain behaviour change for specificgroups (Orji & Mandryk 2014). According to Green,the absent considerations of variations within thesame culture could result in the overgeneralizationof the findings (Green 2005). While existing Ren et al. Published by BCS Learning &DevelopmentProceedings of British HCI 2016 - Fusion,Bournemouth, UK1
ShuttleKickers: Exploring Social Persuasions to Encourage Physical ActivitiesRen Lu Brombacher BekkerBased on the previous considerations, we aim toexplore the following question more explicitly: In thesocietal context of China, how to effectivelymotivate sedentary and sportive people to engagein physical activity using social-related PTs?into seven critical principles of social persuasion,consisting social learning, social comparison,normative Influence, social facilitation, cooperation,competition, and recognition.2.2 Personalizing PersuasionsSpecifically, our current investigations followedtechnology probes (Hutchinson et al. 2003)approach, where we developed and field-tested anovel technology, ShuttleKickers, to explore ourresearch question. We designed ShuttleKickers tofacilitate a co-located social exertion game that wasinspired by the traditional Chinese sport ofshuttlecock-kick. Through the field test with bothphysical active and inactive people, we aim atobtaining a set of insights to identify the mostrelevant social-related PTs for these two distinctgroups of people respectively.In the HCI community, it is acknowledged that thewidespread use of PTs is not efficient for everyone.By means of personalization, persuasive designersare primarily aiming to shape the persuasions tocater to individual’s particular tastes.Khaled et al. (2009) examined how the culturaldimension of collectivism – individualism, identifiedby Hofstede et al. (1991), can influence persuasivestrategies for smoking cessations, and in returnthey designed persuasive games targeting forcollectivist cultural groups. Similarly, by setting up alarge-scale survey among individualist cultures andcollectivist cultures, Orji and Mandryk (2014)developed cultural-relevant PT strategies forhealthy eating behaviour. Their work not onlycompared the differences between cultures, butalso explored the variations within one culture,such as gender and age. Later, Orji et al. (2013)introduced BrainHex (blog.brainhex.com) model topersonalize the persuasive game for different typesof gamer to motivate healthy diet. Furthermore,Kaptein et al. (2015) coined the use of explicit andimplicit user profiling to content-wise adapt thepersuasive systems for individuals.This paper is structured as following. Section 2describes key theories upon which our designstrategies are based. In Section 3, we propose ourdesign strategy, which is followed by the design ofour prototype. Section 4 explains the design of theexperiment, followed by the discussion on ourresults in Section 5. In Section 6, we discuss thedesign implications on social persuasions fordifferent motivational groups respectively. Section 7discusses the scope, limitations, and delimitationsof this exploratory study. Conclusion is given in theend.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND2.3 TTM for Motivating PA2.1 Social Persuasions in PTAnother promising perspective to approach thistopic is to correlate PTs to motivational theories,where the stages of TTM have been largelyexemplified in relevant studies over years. He et al.(2010) classified PTs that support sustainableenergy use according to the different stages ofTTM. Lin et al. (2006) found some design backfiredamong participants at different TTM stages. Ourresearch also took TTM as the basis to specificallydiscuss on how to differentiate social-related PTs toencourage active lifestyle in China by probing theinsights from people in distinct TTM stages.Social influence occurs when a person’s emotion,opinion and behaviour are influenced by others(Cialdini & Goldstein 2004). Six decades ago,Deutsch & Gerard (1955) distinguished two typesof conformity motivation, namely informationalinfluence and normative influence. With the firstone they argued that information from others couldserve as a source to accurately interpret reality andbehaviour, while in the latter they argued humanbeing’s natural drive of obtaining approval fromothers.Motivation, as “an inquiry into the why of behaviour”(Miller et al. 1988), serves to activate or energizebehaviour change. As one of the most widelyrecognized behavioural theories dedicated onmotivation, TTM (Prochaska & Velicer 1997)describes intentional behaviour change as a seriesof stages though which an individual progressesfrom unaware of the problem to intentionally modifythe behaviour. TTM has been successfully appliedin varieties of designs to motivate healthybehaviours including promoting active lifestyle. Inthis topic, the stages progress as follows:Based on the theoretical basis, in his earlierexplorations, Fogg (2002) has recognized theimportance of social influence in PT from foursocial psychological theories, including socialfacilitation, social comparison, conformity, andsocial learning theory. Since then, subsequentdiscussions have been stretched over years. InPersuasive Systems Design (PSD), OinasKukkonen and Harjumaa (2009) highlighted socialsupport as one of the four categories (primary task,dialogue, system credibility, and social support)that persuasive principles could be grouped under.The social support category was primarily adoptedfrom Fogg’s four considerations and was extended2
ShuttleKickers: Exploring Social Persuasions to Encourage Physical ActivitiesRen Lu Brombacher BekkerPrecontemplation. Individual has no intention tomake change to exercise regularly in foreseeablefuture;(punchthrough.com/platform), which embeddedwith accelerometer in order to record the score ofthe game and with the Bluetooth connection toconvert the recorded data into the app.Contemplation.Individualhasseriouslyconsidered changing to take regular exercise indaily life, but has not committed to taking action;Preparation. Individual intends take an action tostart exercising lifestyle in the immediate future(usually measured as the next month), and hasunsuccessfully taken action in the past year;Action. Individual has performed regular exerciseconsistently for less than six months;Maintenance and Relapse. Individual hasconsistently performed regular exercise for six ormore months.3. PROTOTYPE DESIGNFigure 1: Overview of the prototype: the interactiveprototype, and the platform that keeps track of progress3.1 Construct Group-Based StrategiesIn this research, we exclusively select socialfacilitation, cooperation, and competition principlefrom PSD, as described in (Torning & OinasKukkonen 2009), as the basis to formulate thepersuasive strategies to support the design of theprototype. Due to the collectivist nature of Chinesepeople (Hofstede et al. 1991), evidence shows thatsocial behaviour is determined heavily by groupexpectations rather than personal goals (Triandis1989). Therefore, all these principles are adjustedto group-based strategies. Details of designprinciples involved in the strategies are organizedas follows: We based our prototype on the traditionalshuttlecock-kick, because it is a unisex activity thatpromises a variety of physical benefits. Researchhas suggested that with the use of different bodyparts, including feet, knees, hips, and torso tointeract with shuttlecock, people can develop andenhance their coordination, timing, balance,perseverance, and agility (Bian et al. 2009).During our initial design phase, we applied thesocial design strategies into the design ofShuttleKickers. In the following, we will elaboratethe implementation of each principle.3.2.1 Facilitating collective exerciseThe traditional shuttlecock-kick game can beperformed either individually or with partner(s). Inthis study, however, we intended to concentrate onthe activity as a collective exercise so as tounderstand the influence of social persuasion in theoffice surroundings in China. Therefore, weincorporated the social facilitation principle to getpeople playing the physical game together in thesame location. For this purpose, the app indicatorwas designed according to the followingmechanisms. At the beginning, the prototype onlyallows participants to sign up as a team including 2to 6 players (Figure 2(a)). During the registration,participants would also be required to log theirnickname, gender, and age into the system (Figure2(b)).Social facilitation: The design providesmeans for getting people to participategroup exercise together.Intragroup cooperation: The designprovides means for cooperative exercise toachieve a group goal.Intergroup competition: The designprovides means for competing the scores ofgroup exercise with other groups.3.2 Design Probe: ShuttleKickersBased on the selected PT strategies, we developedShuttleKickers, a social exertion that derived from atraditional Chinese sport of shuttlecock-kick. As isdepicted in Figure 1, ShuttleKickers includes aphysical object for collective play and an appindicator for co-located activity initiation in the officesurrounding. Shuttlecock-kick is an activity verysimilar to the game of hacky sack and has a longhistory of at least 1000 years in China. The form ofShuttleKickers basically imitated the tradition, acork with colourful feathers attached above. Theonly evolution of ShuttleKickers was embedding anArduino platform, called LightBlue Bean 3
ShuttleKickers: Exploring Social Persuasions to Encourage Physical ActivitiesRen Lu Brombacher Bekker3.2.3 System interactionWe designed our system to provide real-timefeedback through auditory and visual display: As isshown in Figure 4, During the use, our prototypewould help users to track their scores and visualizethe points on the interface; Meanwhile acorresponding feedback sound (traditional Chinesemusic) would also be given as a reward from thesystem; Once users failed, the recording, visualfeedback, and auditory feedback would freeze.Simultaneously, a praise message such as“congratulations!” and an animation would bepresented on the interface.(a) First of all, the app requests for general information ofthe team (name/number of players)(b) Then, the app requests for detail information of eachplayer (player name/ age/ gender)Figure 2: Screenshots of team registration flow3.2.2 cooperation and competitionTo explore the influence of social persuasion, theprototype also incorporates cooperation andcompetition principles to enable socially physicalperformance. As is shown in Figure 3, the systemcould automatically generate weekly assignmentsfor the team. Moreover, once a team was created,it would be linked with other teams by overallscores and printed on the ranking board on themain interface. When new points gained, theranking board would be adjusted immediately.Figure 4: Structure of the system interaction4. EXPERIMENTIn this section we will discuss the set up of a fieldstudy with the earlier discussed prototype.The participants were recruited on Yuquan campusof Zhejiang University in China. We recruitedparticipants using flyers, word of mouth andpersonal contacts using the following criteria: Figure 3: Screenshots of weekly goal and ranking boardon the main interface4Participants should be teachers or studentsin the university in order to confirm theyconduct their daily activities mostly in officeenvironments to ensure backgroundhomogenous of the participants.Asmentionedbefore,TTM-Basedmeasures were used here to screenthrough the participants to plation, or preparation stage) andsportive people (action or maintenancestage).
ShuttleKickers: Exploring Social Persuasions to Encourage Physical ActivitiesRen Lu Brombacher Bekker Through a short interview, we confirmed allthe participants were familiar withshuttlecock-kick game. We also asked themfor a small test before the test to more orlessunderstandtheirabilitiesonshuttlecock-kick. We finally recruited two teams (G1: P1, P2; G2: P3,P4, P5) of physically active participants (n 5;gender: 5 males; age: M 29.8, SD 11.23) as wellas two teams (G3: P6, P7, P8, P9; G4: P10, P11,P12, P13) of participants (n 8; gender: 4 malesand 4 females; age: M 32.1, SD 6.42) who wereliving in sedentary lifestyles. We asked for a smallpre-test to ensure their physical abilities ofshuttlecock-kick. The details of each participant areshown in Table 1.Video-recorded data of the game progressand observational data from researchers’interpretation. The protocol for observationoriented from our design strategies.Audio-recorded data from the interview.These data were transcribed later foranalysis. Same as observation, the protocolfor interview also oriented from designstrategies.Table 1: Information of participants, we calculate theinitial ability according to the numbers they can jugglewithin one MaleMaleMaleFemaleFemaleFemaleTTM mplationAbility10-1510-15 15 30 2 22-32-3 52-32-32-3 2Figure 5. Field-test details, clockwise from top left:Overview of test facilities; The test setup; Introduction;Field-testing.5. RESULTSFrom the app-recorded data (see Table 2), weobserved that the exercise duration of the fourgroups were basically at a similar level. Althoughevery team was suggested to play for 10 minutesand could cease at any moment in time ifnecessary, all of them had kept the activity for morethan 10 minutes. This finding suggests that theparticipantshadconsiderablyimmersedthemselves into the activity. On the other hands,we found that although the participants in sportivegroups were fewer than that of the sedentarygroups, the final scores of sportive groups werehigher than sedentary groups. Furthermore,between sportive groups, the group that has fewerparticipants even created higher scores thananother group. This implies, at least for sportivegroups, the team efficiency could be negativelyinfluenced by numbers of participants. This maybecause of the confusion who to take the next one.Before the test, all the participants signed theconsent form and allowed us to publish theirinformation related to this study for academicpurpose. We gave everyone a small Dutchsouvenir (e.g., the ceramic model of Dutchwindmill, stroopwafle, etc.) as reward after test.However, we did not mentioned about theincentives on beforehand.As is depicted in Figure 5, the test was conductedin public spaces near the office environments onthe campus (e.g., corridor, vacant office, etc.).Projector and speaker were also used to presentthe visual and auditory feedback from the app. Theevaluations were conducted with different groupsseparately. After each test, we invited the group foran interview session, where they were asked todiscuss their experience and preference on PTs weinvolved in our prototype. Upon the agreement ofthe participants, we collected data in three ways,including: Table 2: App-recorded data of four groupsNumber of ParticipantsDuration (minutes)ScoresAverage ScoresThe number of participants, duration andscores of the test of shuttlecock for eachgroup recorded by the t from the app-recorded data, due to theexplorative nature of our study, we highlight our5
ShuttleKickers: Exploring Social Persuasions to Encourage Physical ActivitiesRen Lu Brombacher Bekkerfound that I still not very good, so I wanted togive up.” (P13)qualitative data from observations and interviewsas key findings of this paper. In the following, wepresent the reflections on our design strategies withuse of representative quotes to describe theparticipants’ perspectives in their own words. Asdiscussed before, we aimed to verify whether TTMstages could differentiate social persuasion.Therefore, in each category we organize ourfindings into sportive groups and sedentary groupsseparately.This suggested that when facilitating a collectiveexercise among sedentary people, it should benoticed that lack of abilities in certain PA couldeventually contribute to a relapse of the behaviour.To response, P6 mentioned:“Initially I like to spend sometime on practicingmy own skill on shuttlecock myself, and aftertechnically ready, I will play the shuttlecock withmy friends.” (P6)5.1 Social Facilitation5.1.1Sportive groupsWe observed that most of the participants werehighly involved in the activity during the test. Theyalso thought that shuttlecock-kick game is a sort ofcollective exercise. However, P5, the participantwho was sportive but lack of ability in playingshuttlecock was an exception. He acted as anoutsider of the activity and passively contributed tothe team performance. He gave us the followingexplanations on this behaviour:This implied that appropriate improvement onpersonal ability is desirable among sedentarypeople before participating in the collective activity.Moreover, positive feedback on individualperformance could also be motivational, as P13also said:“It must be encouraging for pre-seniors whenplaying (shuttlecock) with friends and receiveapplause from them.” (P13)“To achieve better scores, we applied thestrategy that better people work harder. Thatmeans at first they put efforts to gain morepoints. When they felt tired, I do them a favour tokick the shuttlecock. When we considered thisas a game, it would be more interesting if we justpass the shuttlecock one by one.” (P5)Moreover, they also expressed concerns thattiming and location would affect the trigger ofbehaviour. They mentioned:“No matter how interesting this activity would be,I will not do it in my office when there are otherpeople around. This behaviour will disturbothers, and I suggest to design a new roomspecific for this activity to help people get relax.”(P12)This suggested that among people at higher TTMstages, their ability on certain PA behaviour couldinfluence their motivation of participation.Especially when comparing to the activity they aregood at, they tended to choose their old habits:“Time is decisive to this activity, I think it wouldbe wise to consider about the time in theafternoon.” (P8)“I won’t suggest to organize this activity, rather, Iprefer to organize activity like table tennis andswimming, which I accustomed to do.” (P1)5.2 Intragroup Cooperation5.2.1 Sportive groupsThere was very little evidence indicating thatplayers in both groups conformed to cooperate witheach other. More concisely, participants in G1always attempted to juggle the shuttlecock as manyas possible before sending to others. Thisindividualist phenomenon was even more obviouswith G2. In the test, they did not pass theshuttlecock to others until they got tired. Theirexplanations of this behaviour were:“ We will not join in this activity in the sparetime, because we have to play basketballtogether.” (P5)Consistent with TTM, their answers suggested thatpeople at high motivational stages are alreadyconfident in their regular PA routine and are lesstempted to accept any new process of change.5.1.2 Sedentary groupsWe observed that participants in both groups werevery proactive in engaging in the activity initially.When asked whether want to join such kind ofcollective sports, their first reactions also positivelysupported their behaviours. There was oneexception of P13 during the test with G4, whoseemed to be very passive in the game at the endof the test. Her reasons were:“If we two persons juggle (the shuttlecock)respectively, we could make better scores thanthis time.” (P1)“Unlike basketball, shuttlecock kick is not amatch requires team spirit. It mostly based onpersonal performance. Just now, we consideredit as a competition with other teams. When weconsider this as a team game, it would be moreinteresting if we keep on passing the shuttlecockto each other.” (P5)“ At first I did not aware of my ability (onshuttlecock-kick), but in the last a few minutes I6
ShuttleKickers: Exploring Social Persuasions to Encourage Physical ActivitiesRen Lu Brombacher Bekker“This sport requires attention, I don’t want paytoo much attention on communicating in thegame, otherwise we can just stand there to havea chat.” (P2)This suggested that the behaviours of the sportivepeople are very much driven by individual abilitiesand performance; however, if there is a clearlydefined collective goal, their behaviours can bedriven by the collective goal rather than personalpreference.“We will communicate about the strategy inbasketball match. But communication hasnothing to do with the activity.” (P3)5.2.2 Sedentary groupsThe situation seemed to be different when testingwith the sedentary groups. From the test weobserved that every participant tried to deliver theshuttlecock appropriately to others. This suggeststhat they gave the priority to cooperate with eachother, which could reflect their natural drive toconsider the activity at a group level. In their ownwords,This observation, again, suggested that whenhighly motivated people decides to engage in anyforms of collective competition, they may take itseriously and adjust strategies according to thedifferent requirement of physical activities.5.3.2 Sedentary groupsSame as sportive groups, participants did not showstrong awareness of competition during the test.When being asked with similar questions as theprevious groups, they offered us more insightfulanswers:“ I have to say teamwork outweigh personalability during the game.” (P8)This implied that participants strongly prefercooperation to achieve a group goal. In the testwith G4, they changed the rule of the cooperation:people have to say their own name beforereceiving the shuttle. They explained this strategyas follows:“I want to beat other teams, also sometimeswant to challenge myself. Just want to becomebetter.” (P12)This implied that sedentary people would not onlyevaluate their effect on others, but also keen on reevaluating self-image in their progress. More indepth, we realized that the negative consequenceat a team level could also demotivate their passionon the activity. As what P7 said,“This approach is meant to resolve the problemwhen everyone want to kick (the shuttlecock) inthe same time. The player who wants to take theshuttlecock has to say his/her own name inadvance, so that we will work in a good order.And this strategy is derived from volleyballtraining.” (P12)“If we perform too bad and the ranking is notgood any more, then we may not mind whichplace we will be.” (P7)This result informed us that sedentary people couldhave interests to optimize social interaction andteam cooperation based on their own experiencefrom other activities.Moreover, we particularly observed that G2celebrated their high team score during the test,which, in contrast, means a positive result could bemotivational.5.3 Intergroup Competition5.4 System Interaction5.3.1 Sportive groupsFrom the test with two groups, we could not findanything evident to show their concerns on the finalscores. When talking about join in a tournament ofshuttlecock, we received similar comments fromboth groups:5.4.1 Sportive groupsAlthough most of the participants comprehendedthe meaning of visual and auditory feedbackscorrectly, their remarks on our design wereindifferent. They gave us some suggestions onimproving our interaction design:“I don’t want to participate any competitions ofshuttlecock-kick, unless there has attractiveprize.” (P2)“It will be more attractive if you can visualize ourperformance as animations on the screen.” (P1)“Without incentives, we don’t have motivation toinvolve in such kind of competition.” (P4)“I noticed the traditional music according to ourperformance. But I prefer disco music, which therhythm could drive us to play harder.” (P2)Their views pointed out that explicit rewards forsportive people could encourage the engagementof competition, which is conform to thereinforcement management process in TTM.Interestingly, they attributed their lack ofcommunication in the test to their sense ofcompetition.As we have argued, these highly motivated peopleare already confident in their current status.Therefore motivation-based interventions may notbe so effective compared to systems that aim atstimulating high performance.7
ShuttleKickers: Exploring Social Persuasions to Encourage Physical ActivitiesRen Lu Brombacher Bekker5.4.2 Sedentary groupsIn the interview, participants appreciated the factsthat they could see their scores on the screen.However, we learned that the congratulatorymessage was too subtle to be recognized, as P10said,themselves to support a better team performance.As a result, better-performed people will have morechance to play than the less performed people.This observation could also be affected by the factof the high score of Power Distance in China(Hofstede et al. 1991). Moreover, we also observedthat the sportive people were more inclined tounderstand their role of playing in the collectiveexercise. At this point, the following implicationcould be derived:“We just noticed the scores on the screen, yetthe rest of the information wasn’t attractive tous.” (P10)Moreover, it has to be committed that audiofeedback seemed more popular than visual. Theymentioned that:DI for sportive people: Ensure sportive peoplecould find the right positions in the collective PA tocontribute to the team performance (see Figure 6).“I like the traditional music that enables us tokick the shuttlecock with the rhythm.” (P9)“The companionship of music had encouragedus to carry on.” (P11)However, they also revealed the other side of thecoin, as what P12 recalled:“When we failed and the music stopped, thenwe felt a bit depressed.” (P12)Figure 6. The prototype interface enables users tochoose their expertise in the basketball game.In other words, adding praise principl
Figure 1: Overview of the prototype: the interactive prototype, and the platform that keeps track of progress We based our prototype on the traditional shuttlecock-kick, because it is a unisex activity that promises a variety of physical benefits. Research has suggested that with the use of
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