Theories And Theoretical Frameworks
SECTION ITheories and TheoreticalFrameworksINTRODUCTIONThis section of the SAGE Handbook of WorkplaceLearning presents a set of eleven chapters whichaddress a wide range of theoretical positions,models, theories and their implications for thefield under consideration in the Handbook.The influences of psychological theories, sociological, situated, and postmodern thinking on thepossible theories of how people learn and respondin and through workplace activity is dealt with indetail. There is a range of frameworks and positionsadopted by the set of authors who show a varietyof international backgrounds and orientations.Initially, Malloch and Cairns explore new ideasand directions for the concept of WorkplaceLearning arguing for a broader conceptualisationin this, the beginning of a new century. Work isdefined as more than employment for remuneration, and the considerations of place as more thana physical location for learning and work open aset of possibilities for much broader concerns andissues to be examined. A set of future prospects isalso considered as a way to look forward to whatmight be pressing challenges for work, place andlearning in the twenty-first century.Hager, in Chapter 2, provides an historicaloverview of major theories relevant to workplacelearning in order to take the reader to the presentand future. The discus sion covers the many viewsof workplace learning theories and their underlying philosophical positions to show how theoriesof workplace learning have evolved and emergedto their significant place in current research andpractice across the field.5438-Malloch-Chap-01.indd 1Illeris offers a chapter that examines changesand development in learning and workplace learning and he presents a model of workplace learningand ‘working life as a space for learning’. Illerissees workplace learning as a matter of what takesplace in the interaction of the learner’s work identity with workplace practices. A key focus forIlleris in this chapter is on learning as competencedevelopment, which he elaborates and positions asa central idea.Fuller and Unwin take on the aspect of organisations and their place in a consideration ofworkplace learning. In this chapter they discuss,amongst other aspects, the various forms of workorganisations (including high performance workand management of high performance organisations). The chapter also offers a detailed discussionof the workplace as a site for learning and presentsan interesting exemplar of the ‘expansive’ and‘restrictive’ ends of their earlier developed idea ofthe ‘expansive restrictive continuum’.Billett suggests strongly that it is time for thesignificance of personal agency and self to figuremore prominently in theories of Workplace Learningand he presents his theoretical stance on the interactions and ‘affordances’ that operate between individual ‘cognitive experience’ and social experienceand how these are negotiated in the workplace.Central to Billett’s case are the elements of learningthrough and for work and how individual engagement is based on what he calls ‘relational interdependence with social agency’ in workplaces. Hisconclusion relates to individuals being activeparticipants in ‘remaking cultural practices’ whicharise and are involved in work and workplaces.4/17/2010 11:30:29 AM
2THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF WORKPLACE LEARNINGCairns suggests that the influential model ofcommunities of practice, as developed and popularised by Lave and Wenger, may have, to someextent, outlived its relevance as an explanatorymodel of learning in the workplace, even thoughits impact and significance has been immense.Cairns surveys a range of critiques of the idea andits application over the past twenty years andoffers some additional thoughts on ways to thinkdifferently about the intersections that individuallearners face in workplace learning situationsand how societal elements may be included inthe way workplace learning takes place. There isalso a link to the following chapter by Engestromamongst the suggestions for different thinkingabout ensembles and self in learning in theworkplace.Engestrom offers a clear and very useful updateon his Activity theory and its relationship tostudying workplaces and workplace learning. Bypresenting his ‘expansive theory’ and the conceptof ‘knotworks’ within the context of broad-basedprofessionals in medical treatment groups withcollaborative work and learning to better offertreatment, Engestrom shows some very insightfuland different views as he moves towards aco-configuration model.Ellstrom, in Chapter 8 discusses InformalLearning at Work and takes on the points madeelsewhere by critics who see the informal-formaldichotomy to be unhelpful as he argues that informal learning is a significant and pervasive learning mode in a range of contexts, including schools.Ellstrom also discusses the differences betweenadaptive and developmental learning as he examines what he calls ‘enabling’ and ‘constraining’learning environments. Ellstrom’s journey throughhis theoretical paper, which also covers a fourlevel model of action and reflection, suggests thatwhile structural conditions are important in learning at work, so too are subjective factors; he alsoreminds readers that micro, macro and mesolevels of analysis are necessary elements in anyconsideration of learning in the workplace.Russ-Eft sets out to identify, through varioustheories and considerations, what she calls a ‘metatheory,’ which is her constructed theoretical5438-Malloch-Chap-01.indd 2framework based on implications from the rangeof theories and views she has charted. This reviewof various theories and their underlying conceptualisation locates a range of views and will assistthe reader to reconsider what learning theoriessuit application and development in the arena ofworkplace learning.Allix, in Chapter 10 addresses the significantarea of Knowledge with a detailed tour of thevarious theoretical areas and influences includingwork on mind and cognition that have arisen frommore recent brain sciences and how learningrelates to these views. Again, Allix comes down toa conclusion that learning is both ‘a profoundlyindividual and social phenomenon’ which resonates with the positions of a number of the authorsin this section (albeit in slightly differing formsand with different bases and emphases).Finally, in this first section, Evans, Guile andHarris present a case for rethinking work-basedlearning and start with some points about workplace and work-based differences and similaritiesand how work-based learning has, in the UK, been‘appropriated’ as a different concept akin tobasing qualifications in higher education on workassignment and other ‘learning opportunities’.They continue to argue for a more inclusive standand understanding of work-based learning toenhance learning for and through work, aspectsthat resonate throughout this Handbook. The suggestions for a model of recontextualisation ofcontent, workplace, pedagogy and learner as thefour ‘modes’ offers a cogent case for this to be acore aspect of any rethinking of work-based learning and they add that it also avoids transfer issuesin other models.This first section of The SAGE Handbook ofWorkplace Learning sets the theoretical sceneand presents the reader with a range of views,models and theories and yet with some elementsof convergence amongst the very broad churchof the international group of authors. There areissues, challenges and positions suggested thatshould, in turn, challenge the field to rethink andreconsider a number of positions and theoreticalorientations to better develop the study ofWorkplace Learning.4/17/2010 11:30:34 AM
1Theories of Work, Place andLearning: New DirectionsMargaret Malloch and Len CairnsINTRODUCTIONThe first decade of the twenty-first century may ormay not be the harbinger of incredible change andglobal difference among the many peoples andnations that saw such advances that were achievedin the twentieth century. Globalization, that latetwentieth century spectre of either connectedintercultural and cross-cultural development, orthe single greatest threat to harmony and autonomy, for example, may in fact be a non-event bythe mid twenty-first century. To some, this laststatement may be heretical, yet early in this century we have seen the financial markets melt downin late 2008 and various other effects of too greatan interconnectedness, as the world notes that‘thinking global’ is not always an advantage to all.Other current trends and directions may be, aswas the case in previous generations, just perceptions that this era is one of great change like neverbefore seen, rather than some normal progressionstage. As Sir John Adams wrote in the introduction to his 1922 volume on Modern Developmentsin Educational Practice:It seems inherent in human beings to regard theirown period as one of notable change. We arecontinually telling each other that this is a criticaltime, that we are at the parting of the ways,that vital issues lie in our hands at the presentmoment (p. 2).This chapter sets out to explore new ideas anddirections for the concept of Workplace Learning.It suggests that the three terms included in the5438-Malloch-Chap-01.indd 3composite, that is, Work, Place and Learning, eachneed to be considered more broadly than has beenthe case in the last 50 years and that the combination of the three should invoke some new thinkingin this ‘ultramodern’ age of the twenty-firstcentury. In addition, the chapter presents a numberof suggested challenges which could necessitatedifferent approaches to a wide range of workplacelearning thinking and activities as this twenty-firstcentury unfolds.We are suggesting, contrary to Sir John Adams’rather dismissive rebuff, that this era is one ofcritical importance and change, not just a possiblemisperception of normality.This chapter explores, from a theoretical perspective, the three terms that together constituteWorkplace Learning; Work, Place and Learning,and how there should be broader considerationgiven to these terms in the twenty-first century. Inaddition, the chapter offers some insights andideas for new directions in the area of WorkplaceLearning.Beginning with the term Work, the chapter suggests that a much broadened understanding of thisword is needed to include the many areas of civicservice (Beck, 2000) and household activities(including child rearing) that have previously beendiscounted as actual work in most Western societies (Chisholm and Davis, 2005). We argue thatwork is a more generalized notion than employment or an activity taking place in a specific sitethat involves production for remuneration.We were recently reminded that John Dewey, inhis seminal work Democracy and Education (1916),wrote about the differences and similarities among4/17/2010 11:30:34 AM
4THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF WORKPLACE LEARNINGchildren with regard to work and play. That playand work could be further extended more broadlyis summed up by the following:It is important not to confuse the psychologicaldistinction between play and work with the economic distinction. Psychologically, the definingcharacteristic of play is not amusement nor aimlessness. It is the fact that the aim is thought of asmore activity in the same line, without definingcontinuity of action in reference to results produced. Activities as they grow more complicatedgain added meaning by greater attention to specific results achieved. Thus they pass gradually intowork. Both are equally free and intrinsically motivated, apart from false economic conditions whichtend to make play into idle excitement for the wellto do, and work into uncongenial labor for thepoor. Work is psychologically simply an activitywhich consciously includes regard for consequences as a part of itself; it becomes constrainedlabor when the consequences are outside of theactivity as an end to which activity is merely ameans. Work which remains permeated with theplay attitude is art – in quality if not in conventional designation (p. 205–206).The discussion of the nature of work also embracesthe concept of place, in relation to situated theories of learning and issues of transferability andgeneralizability of capable learners. There is alsoa need to consider, with regard to learning placesin this definitional and conceptualization debate,where it may be that one learns in the individualsense and in the psychological examination of thelearning process. The Workplace, in our discussion, then becomes a more potentially personaland negotiated location than where one isemployed by a third party or organization. Thecentral role personal agency can play in this conceptualization is then emphasized as significant.Consideration of the socio-cultural theories of thelearning place and more sophisticated models ofadult learner-managed learning as evidenced inthe PAM model (Cairns, 2003) will be included inthis discussion.The third term in the Workplace Learningdescriptor, which is the major reason and core ofwhat this volume is about, Learning, evokes a widerange of theories and ideas which lead to a rangeof contested and often contradictory positionsamongst theorists and researchers (Illeris, 2009).In this chapter we shall argue that learning, as anactivity that involves change and development inindividuals and organizations, is a process thatimpinges on all humans at all times. Engagementin learning, however, is an aspect that requiresindividuals to take some agency and decisionsabout how, when, where and why they engage.5438-Malloch-Chap-01.indd 4WORKThere is no doubt that the word work and what itstands for across the world seems to raise considerable interest, and the notion of what work constitutes in an individual’s life (whether this isconceived as a lifecourse, lifeplace or lifespace)has been a historically significant definer of whoand what people do in society.This trend to define or identify one’s selfthrough what we work at has emerged over manyyears to be a singularly significant aspect of life inthe late twentieth century.Identifying self through workWork is an activity where individuals alone andtogether participate in productive endeavours tocomplete tasks or to achieve outcomes which areeither self set or set by others and which may ormay not be remunerated. Work is also a processwhereby individuals engage in activity from whichthey gain some satisfaction on completion whichmay or may not be recognized by others. (Cairnsand Malloch, 2006).We frequently identify ourselves through ourwork. In social settings we introduce ourselves byname and when the question comes ‘and what doyou do?’ the response is an identification, primarily in terms of what we do for paid employment(almost ‘I work therefore I am’). If no longer inpaid work, then ‘I work as a volunteer’, or ‘I amretired’, or ‘I was a ‘specific occupation’ is proffered. This has occurred throughout history: forexample, in English, with names of occupationsidentifying individuals, such as fletcher, farmer,fisher, butcher, baker, knight, smith, and so on. Weare identified officially by occupations, by our workin travel, social security, health, insurance, andfinancial documents. This century the notion ofwhat people do, associated with the term ‘work’,is how people tend to define themselves. Later, asone of the Challenges for the Future and howsocieties will respond, this aspect will be raised asa serious potential shift in the twenty-first century.Exploring the concept of workIn definitional terms, the word, ‘work’, can havemany meanings, ranging from the traditionalmeaning (and we would suggest in the twenty-firstcentury a simplistic definition) as an activitycarried out to produce a product or outcome remunerated by an employer. It can also be the placewhere individuals are employed. ‘Work’ is therefore utilized as a term for the place and the activitycarried out in that place. Work and workplace4/17/2010 11:30:34 AM
THEORIES OF WORK, PLACE AND LEARNINGare seen as distinct from home and places for recreation. Work has become a place where one goesto carry out labour distinct from one’s home.(Cairns and Malloch, 2008, p. 4). We wish to suggest that for the twenty-first century, this conceptualization of work is too narrow and we shalloffer some broadening ideas and draw togethersome critical thinking as to why such a broadeningis necessary.Birch and Paul (2003), tell us that in ancientGreece, work was seen as ‘interfering with theduties of citizens, distracting them from theimportant pursuits of politics, art, philosophy andwhat they called leisure’ (p. 21). Interestingly,leisure was ‘skhole’ from which we derive theword school. Birch and Paul also tell us that therepublican Romans had a similar view.The Romans of the Republic period adopted asimilar attitude. The Latin for ‘work’, labor, means‘extreme effort associated with pain’ (p. 21).It is apparent that in history, ‘work’ was not seenas a positive element of social need and activity.How work was subsequently defined may havebeen part of this perceived attitude.Existing theories of work are strongly influenced by historical and economic developments.Class and status linked to work roles are influential in the development of theories of work,place and learning. Historians have written ofwork from the perspective of a shift from agrarianto industrial to post-industrial societies. In analyses of the division of labour, employers and workers have been identified as separate entities,separate in role and class and power status(Braverman, 1974). Within most Western societies, the statistical data on employment as percentages of persons in paid work has become a keymeasure of national economic success (Cairnsand Malloch, 2008, p. 4). Unemployment isseen as a measure for economic difficulties anda weakened economy in any nation where thefigures are high.Babbage (1835; in Davis and Taylor, 1972, p. 23)writing in the time of the Industrial Revolution,argued that ‘(p)erhaps the most important principle upon which the economy of a manufacturedepends, is the division of labour amongst thepersons who perform the work’. Work in theIndustrial Revolution had brought about a shiftfrom the agrarian, more ‘home’ based work to thedevelopment of separate places of employment,such as mills and, eventually, factories, which bythe twentieth century featured assembly lines andmass production, referred to as the Fordist andPost Ford eras. In the longer-term consideration ofhistory, this view of ‘work’ is relatively recent andsomewhat out of place with the traditions of work5438-Malloch-Chap-01.indd 55as what each person and family completed athome, be it their workshop shed, farm or cottage.Workers’ rights and needs were fought over inthe nineteenth and twentieth centuries with unionism supporting workers in what in many caseswas a struggle between capitalism and socialism,characterized as money versus the people. In thetwenty-first century, with unionism somewhatdisempowered, workers have again been subjectedto diminished rights and conditions. Westerneconomies have moved manufacturing, in particular, offshore to cheaper, more populous, less protected workforces in the east and south east of theEuropean centric global mapping terms.Beck (1999; 2000; 2004) challenged prevailingideas and theories in the field of work and its placein society, suggesting that Western societies wereheading to become ‘risk societies’ where only oneout of two people will be employed in the currentsense. Beck presents an alternative view for thedefining of work, bringing in formal recognitionfor the unpaid, voluntary work carried out bycitizens.For me, the antithesis of the work society is boosting the political society of individuals, the activecitizen’s society on the spot. This society can findand develop in miniature, local answers to thechallenges of the Second Modernity. However, thisis tied up with a few preconditions. Work time wouldhave to be shortened for all on the full-employmentlabour market. Everyone – women and men –should be able to have one leg in gainful employment. Parent’s work, i.e. work with children,would have to be equally recognized by society aswould be artistic, cultural and political civic workby, for example, claims for pensions and healthcare being granted to both categories – parentaland civic. In the final analysis, simultaneous commitment to gainful employment and civic work willtherefore presuppose family obligations beingredistributed between men and women as well(2004, p. 2).The study of work (or more specifically ‘the worldof work’) and what it involves has a history thatStatt (2004) claims only goes back to the latenineteenth and twentieth centuries (p. 5).As he later examines the trends in work andwhat he calls ‘non-work’ he comes to an interesting conclusion:Paid work in the form of a job is one of the centralaspects of our identity, though the relationshipbetween work and employment is not alwaysclear-cut. A great many activities that wouldnormally be described as work may not be paidand a lot of employed time may not be spentworking (p. 156).4/17/2010 11:30:34 AM
6THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF WORKPLACE LEARNINGIn another detailed examination of the ideaand definition of work, Noon and Blyton (2002)also suggest that the differences in this newera between work and non-work may be blurredand somewhat confused. After opting for a definition taken from Thomas (1999) which focuseson three elements: 1 work achieves something,2 work involves a degree of obligation or challenge, and 3 work involves effort and persistence,Noon and Blyton suggest that many leisureactivities fit these three points as well as paidemployment (p. 4). They conclude, significantlywe believe:What is needed is to strike a balance that givesgreater recognition to the different activities thatconstitute people’s work. Further, such a balanceis necessary not only because of the scale ofthe different spheres of work but also because ofthe key links that exist between the differentaspects of paid and unpaid, visible and hiddenwork (p. 4).There are now a number of ways of viewing workand its meanings across society. Some may see itas labour, others as a job, and many as employment. Our point is that work needs, in this twentyfirst century period of what we describe asultramodernity (Beck also uses this and ‘secondmodernity’), to be conceived of as a broaderbased activity across a very wide range of ambitsof social interaction and self-motivated action.This is necessary because the ways and means ofaction people take in order to exist, play, and earnis currently shifting in a paradigmatic mannerfrom paid actions by an employer to a broaderrange of activities that may lead to some remuneration amidst other activities (often by directchoice) where pay is not a factor, and where workis still carried out in significant ways. In addition,the modes of action, be they direct physical exertion, knowledge development and application orvirtual actions in a cyberspace, all have differingwork connotations.Elsewhere we have defined this new conceptionof work as:We see work more as an enabled purposive effortby an individual to initiate activity or respond to anissue or problem in a range of situations for someperceived (by them) productive end. This emphasises that the action is intentional engagement byan individual (Cairns and Malloch, 2008).Work is intentional engagement. Work is an application of effort. Work has a purpose and isan intentional or purposive act and finally, workmay or may not be a matter of employment orremunerated activity.5438-Malloch-Chap-01.indd 6PLACEWe now turn to the second element in the composite term Workplace Learning, that of Place.The term place also has a range of meaningsand connotations. These range across the obviousphysical location, through the more esotericspiritual location and to the more recent virtuallocation. Place, we are told, in a serious and scholarly examination of the intersection of placeand education by Hutchison (2004), has manyreference points:The term “place” conjures up visions of locality,spatial representations of those places with whichwe are familiar, and those places the unfamiliarityof which intrigues us. We reside in places, go towork and recreate in places, travel daily throughplaces that are sometimes meaningful to us andother times ignored or taken for granted. We identify with those places that played some formative(if still illusive) role in our childhood years, thoseplaces that are associated with good times or bad.The term ‘place’ is imbued with emotion, definedby the boundaries it imposes on space, andinformed by the utility to which space is put in ourlives. Place can be understood as an individuallyconstructed reality – a reality informed by theunique experiences, histories, motives, and goalsthat each of us brings to the spaces with which weidentify (p. 11).When we discuss place and places in this chapterwe are seeking to open up many of the areasHutchison has cited and more. We seek to enablea broader consideration of place in the sense of thecomposite term Workplace Learning. There aretwo aspects of the relationship between place andthe other two terms in this expression. There areplaces of work and there are places of learning.The simple and most common connotationfor workplace, is that of a physical location. Be ita factory, an office or a bench space at home or atsome other location, it is a space where one works.This first order concept of place as related to workis the most frequently utilized aspect of workplacein common language about the idea, but the ideaof places as a range of different orders of locationand being have emerged more recently.Places can also be heavily spiritually significant,as it is argued it is with indigenous Australians.The identification with the land is clearly summedup by Hardy in her book Lament for the Barkindji,about the tribes along the great Darling Riverin Australia:They were spiritually akin to every natural featureand to every growing thing that clothed the4/17/2010 11:30:34 AM
THEORIES OF WORK, PLACE AND LEARNINGhillsides or roamed the plains or drank deeply fromthe waterholes. They and the land were one, andit was a wholeness designed to endure in thenatural order of things (p. 1).Place has effects and is an affective link betweenhumans and their origins as well as somethingof significance in relation to where they live,work and play. People will ask for their ashesto be spread over their old school grounds,the place where they had enjoyable holidaysor where they played football in a local park.The reference to locations (places) as whereone’s ‘roots’ are, abounds in everyday talk and inliterature.In addition to both physical and spiritual placesof significance in life, there are aspects of psychological place which are important, particularly inthe context of workplace learning. Psychologicalplace may be a consideration of identificationas well as some concern with ‘mind’ as a placewhere we think, dream and consider ourselves.This is not the Cartesian mind/body dichotomybut rather the cognitive psychology considerationof where learning might take place. How humanexperience and cognition come together is thebasis of much of the work of Varela and hiscolleagues (Varela, Thompson and Rosch, 1993).In their examination of the contributions ofEducational Psychology to Adult Learning andDevelopment, Smith and Pourchot (1998) concluded that a new field of Adult EducationalPsychology was needed and that the way lifelonglearning and development for adults proceededwas a major necessary study area for advancement. Their book dealt with a wide range of ideasand approaches, including Bonk and Kim’s casefor the extension of socio-cultural theory (especially the concepts of the Zone of ProximalDevelopment (ZPD) and scaffolding) to adultlearning. Whilst we have resonance with the ideasof socio-cultural theory and the important foundations of Vygotskian thinking, we believe a itshould be remembered that Vygotsky was working with and theorizing about children and theirlearning. We have also argued elsewhere (Cairnsand Malloch, 2008) that sophisticated adult learners may operate as self-scaffolders or even without any necessary scaffolding as it is currentlyconceptualized. We also contend that whilst theidea of the ZPD may have some relevance as aplace of learning activity, the notions of morecapable others (be they peers or teachers) inthe adult worker situation may be quite differentfrom the research-base work with children.Aspects of the Japanese thinking on Ba andBasho (see Nishida, 1987a, 1987b, and Nonakaand Takeuchi, 1995; Von Krogh, Nonaka andNishiguchi, 2000) where Ba is a ‘shared mental5438-Malloch-Chap-01.indd 77place for emerging relationships’ (Nonaka,Reinmoeller and Senoo, 2000), are also worthy ofconsideration in this debate area. Western ideas ofplace and space and their relationship to thinkingand mind may need a considerable shake-up forbetter clarity to emerge.Place, in relation to learning and cognition, cancover a very wide range of ideas and situations.It can refer to physical or spiritual locations andalso relate to spaces in which we see ourselves aspeople and learners. Place can also refer to whereit is that we think we operate cognitively as wethink and learn (Intra-Personal Place). There isno doubt that the social interaction aspect oflearning in a multitude of (Inter-Personal Place)offers some useful thought for the considerationof how and where workplace learning occurs(see Figure 1.1).LEARNINGOf all the areas involved in this discussion, thefield described by the term ‘Learning’ has themost definitional and research-based modelsand theories (Jarvis, 2001; Jarvis, Holford andGriffin, 1998; Smith and Pourchot, 1998; Vaill,1996; Illeris, 2009). We all ‘know’ what we meanwhen we use the term ‘learning’, but there arevariations and aspects that require comment
address a wide range of theoretical positions, models, theories and their implications for the field under consideration in the Handbook. The influences of psychological theories, soci-ological, situated, and postmodern thinking on the possible theories of how people learn and respond i
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 63-81 Learning Objectives 63 Key Terms 63 Role Theories 65 Motivational Theories 67 Learning Theories 69 Cognitive Theories 73 Symbolic Interaction Theories 75 Socio-Cultural Theories 77 Evolutionary Theories 78 Summary and review 80 review QueStionS 81 4. SELF AND IDENTITY 82-107
2 S o c i a l T h e o r i e s Theories can be used to study society—millions of people in a state, country, or even at the world level. When theories are used at this level they are referred to as macro-level theories, theories which best fit the study of massive numbers of people (typically Conflict and Functional theories).
The theories just cited are global theoretical frameworks rather than specific theoretical mod-els. The value of a framework for something as complex as comprehension is that it provides a . The Reading Systems Framework can also guide the formation of novel theories and hypothe-sesofreadingproblems .
theoretical frameworks from social, behavioral, or biological sciences to inform all study phases. Mixed methods studies inherently provide opportunities to integrate a variety of theoretical perspectives (e.g., complexity theory, critical theories, ecological theories, stress theory).
1.1 This Book and Theories of Economics 1 1.1.1 Theories: Economic and Otherwise 4 1.1.2 Economic Theories in Disagreement 5 1.1.3 Are WAll e Economic Theorists? 6 1.2 Theories and Society 9 1.2.1 Changes in Europe and the Hum
These are equational theories that can be turned into convergent rewrite systems, modulo associativity and commutativity of certain binary operators. Many important theories for intruder deduction fall into this category, e.g., theories for exclusive-or [10,7], Abelian groups [10], and more generally, certain classes of monoidal theories [11].
that our initial survey of business communication theories was an adequate canvassing of essential business communication theories. We used the judges' ratings to classify the theories into four categories: notable, focused, major, and core. For categorizing the theories, we first averaged all raters' theory scores for each theory across all
Anatomi tulang pada tangan, terdiri atas tulang lengan atas (humerus), pergelangan tangan (carpal), telapak tangan (metacarpal), dan jari-jari. Setiap lengan melekat pada tulang belikat (scapula), yaitu tulang segitiga besar di sudut tulang bagian atas setiap sisi tulang rusuk. Kerangka tubuh terdiri atas berbagai jenis tulang yang memiliki fungsi dan bentuk yang berbeda untuk menjalankan .
