MEDICINE WHEEL, M AND JUNG
MEDICINE WHEEL, MANDALA,AND JUNGEDUARDO DURAN“Ask the beasts and they will teach you, and the birds of theair, and they will tell you; or speak to the earth and it will teachyou, and the fish of the sea will explain to you.” Job 12: 7-9INTRODUCTIONMuch has been written regarding the thinking, theory, andpraxis that encompass Jung’s contribution to humanity.Unfortunately there has been very little written regardingIndigenous Native American thought, theory, or practice in the areaof Native psychology that is not reductionist in nature. Much of whatis written in this area is from a Western empirical framework thatattempts to make sense of a worldview that is fundamentally differentthan the worldview of the Western mind-set.1 A fundamental differencethat may separate the two cosmologies is that Jung’s system isinfluenced largely by Hegelian dialectics,2 while Native psychology doesEduardo Duran, Ph.D., has worked as a clinical psychologist for over twodecades. He has served as a professor of psychology in several graduate settings andcontinues to teach and lecture in community settings all over the world. Presently,he is in private practice and consulting where he can bring all that he has learnedinto the consulting or therapeutic endeavor.
2EDUARDO DURANnot reflect an antagonistic relationship between the conscious psycheand the unconscious/spirit world.Dialectic consciousness predisposes the medical model to be oneof antagonism where the doctor is to battle the illness and thus eradicateit. Native American cosmology is one in which the doctor forms arelationship with the whole life-world, including sickness, which isunderstood as a loss of harmony in the person, family, and tribe. Itmakes intuitive sense as to why these two profound systems of healingand relating to the psyche, spirit, and world are seen as being different,yet I believe there are sufficient similarities that eventually will allowboth systems to evolve into a comprehensive therapeutic system thatwill enhance healing of psyche and body. This is all the more so whenJungian theory plays an integral part in the picture. In this paper Iwill illustrate some of the distinct differences between the two systemsthat lead to similar ends by re-visiting and analyzing some of Jung’smajor theoretical contributions from a Native perspective that is basedon several decades of my clinical work with the Native psyche.It is critical to note that there is no single essential Nativeperspective due to the fact that there are several hundred distinct tribalcommunities in North America. When I refer to Native psychology orepistemology I am speaking to ideas and insights that have beenamalgamating for several decades. These ideas, constructs, and ways ofbeing in the life-world have constellated in my psyche after workingtherapeutically with Native people from at least one hundred tribalgroups. A sample of 100 out of 550 is a significant sample in mostempirically driven research. In psychological research inferences oftenare made with much smaller samples, and such inferences often leadto policy statements as well as treatment regimens.I became keenly aware early on in my clinical work with Nativepeople that much of the psychotherapeutic approaches in use at thetime were not being received very well, and at times the therapy wasbeing rejected outright by the communities I was working with. As Iattempted to use behavioral and cognitive therapies with my patients,they insisted on talking about their dreams. I realized that dreams hadimportance, and the dreams that I had in my life had a deep impacton me; but I was not aware of the “how-to of dreams” in a therapeuticcontext. What is profoundly interesting is the fact that by simply
MEDICINE WHEEL, MANDALA, AND JUNG3listening to the dreams of my patients, they began to heal from serioussymptoms that afflicted them.Shortly after I decided to ask all my patients for dreams, I was askedto see an elder from the community. The visit to the elder proved tobe my entry into the world of archetypes, complexes, spirits, and soul.This elder, without saying so, became my root teacher in this new worldof soul (details of this teaching are found in my book Buddha inRedface). 3 Unknown to me at the time, Tarrence, my “Buddha inRedface,” had asked to see me for two reasons: 1) to see if I wasteachable; 2) to ensure that I was not using dreams as a way of hurtingthe psyche of the community as he was keenly aware of how theprinciple of evil (shadow) becomes constellated in the healing processand must be balanced during the therapeutic/healing ceremony thatpatients and I were involved in. During the first meeting with him, Iliterally almost lost consciousness and my ego wanted to have nothingto do with him. Later I realized that my ego was not developedsufficiently to understand the transmission being imparted by this holyman and for this reason reacted by trying to lose consciousness in thepresence of overwhelming insight that I had no frame of reference orcontext for assimilating. Somehow I persisted and his teachings becamethe seeds of much of the work I do, write about, and teach.The three years that I spent as his pupil (although at the time Ihad no idea I was his pupil) were very frustrating because he wouldtalk about things that appeared completely irrational and made nosense to my ego. In retrospect I can categorize these three years as onelong Koan that took me to the brink of soul and loss of soul. OnceTarrence left for the spirit world I realized that he was indeed a holyman and had been teaching me about soul and healing of soul in amanner that was painful and frightening and felt like it posed a risk tomy soul. Tarrence did not refer to Jung, yet Jung’s work seems to referto Tarrence (in spirit if not in letter) in a manner that is very intimateand knowing.A critical difference in the way that Native people approach dreamsand understanding psyche is the manner of approach. Jungian analysisunderstands manifestations of the psyche as emanating from theunconscious, and these manifestations mostly are seen as projections.The fact that they are seen as projections leads me to believe that theseprojections must exist within the psyche and therefore search for the
4EDUARDO DURAN“hook” that the projection can hook onto. Most of the patients that Ihave seen do not look at psyche and spirit in the same manner. Thebelief system of many Native people is that we are part of a spirituallyoriented cosmology that manifests phenomena in a spiritual mannerand these need to be approached and understood in a way that iscongruent to spiritual relationships in this plane of existence.Thus, dreams, visions, and active imagination, from a Nativeperspective, are gifts from the spirit world and proper etiquette isrequired when relating to these energies that have an awareness andconsciousness within themselves and do not require our ego to makethem conscious. Because they are a gift from the “Mystery”4 it is properto relate to them by giving an offering in order to maintain therelationship to the sacred. In Jungian psychology the approach to theunconscious has been termed by Jung and his followers as “aconfrontation with the unconscious”.5 The notion of confrontation andantagonism with these powerful energies is foreign to most of the Nativepeople I have worked with. Instead a relationship is sought with the“visitor from the spirit world” who has come to assist us in finding arelationship to the Sacred. For example, if a person is being afflictedby a psychological problem, the task is not to confront, get rid of, orhave any type of adversarial relationship. Instead, the task is to get toknow the spirit of the entity bringing the neurosis that in reality ismotivating the person towards a closer relationship to the sacred. Inthe case of anxiety, which most people are eager to banish, the questionwould be what information—or even what gifts—the anxiety mightbe bringing and what is it asking of the individual. It could be alertingone to a danger; it could be forcing attention to some kind of creativeor spiritual encounter that challenges the ego’s existing rigid view ofits own needs. In Native way it might come in the form of an animalsymbol in a dream—a muskrat, a badger, or bear, for example—inwhich case the dreamer would be called upon to explore the actualand symbolic characteristics of the muskrat, badger or bear.JUNG, JUNGIANS, SHAMANS, AND MEDICINE PEOPLEIt is important to note that Jung himself was very different fromJungians in a fundamental way. Donald Sandner makes a brilliantdistinction between the different healing traditions as they are foundall over the world.6 Sandner’s research has shown that there are at least
MEDICINE WHEEL, MANDALA, AND JUNG5three distinct types of healing traditions that can be related to Jungand analysts:1. The shaman enacts and transforms the symbolismin his own person through periods of ecstatic trance.2. The medicine man draws upon a vast body oftraditional symbolism, but he does not live it out.Medicine men/women are initiated by a body ofhealers, who are already practicing through a body ofknowledge that is passed on from one generation tothe next. A key difference between the shaman andmedicine man/woman is that the shaman is initiateddirectly by the sacred so that being initiated by existingpractitioners is not necessary.3.The psychotherapist does not have ecstatic journeys,nor dancing, singing, or sandpainting. There is nogiven large body of symbolism for the psychotherapistto draw upon for the benefit of the patient.Jung himself was initiated via the shamanic tradition. His journeythrough the desert and underworld, as described in his Red Book, areclassic to shamanic initiations the world over.7 In The Red Book 8 andin Memories, Dreams, Reflections,9 Jung describes how his psyche wasdismembered, much in the manner that shamans are dismembered,and came back from the underworld with his new song, as is therequirement of the newly initiated shaman who survives the ordeal. InNative American healing circles when a person is going through thetype of neurosis or psychosis that is part of the call to becoming ashaman, the community understands this illness as “Indian sickness.”In order for the person to be restored to health, the person must singtheir new song. Jung’s new song is his Collected Works, The Red Book,and other publications.From the very start of the initiation process we see remarkablesimilarities between the shamanic call and Jung’s own process ofacquiring and singing his song. A problem (as I see it) for Jung in hisprocess is that he did not have a tribal tradition that would allow himto make complete sense of his initiation. Instead, he spent a largeportion of his life trying to understand his vision via the rules of logicalpositivism as is reflected in his attempts to “scientize” his experience.
6EDUARDO DURANJungians, on the other hand, (for the most part) take the song thatJung sang and try to make sense of it in their own lives and work byundergoing a training process that has been prescribed by their Jungianelders, thus removing themselves from the direct shamanic experiencethat Jung went through. The Sandner model illustrates that the modernanalyst is more in line with the medicine man tradition rather thanthe shamanic one because the analytic process does not allow for theanalyst to “live out the myth in the session,” i.e. the analyst does nottake in the illness/neurosis of the patient and transform it from withinthe analyst. The Jungian analyst’s initiation requires that they gothrough their own analysis by someone who is initiated as well asthrough a long course of training where they draw from a vast body ofJungian symbolism, writings, and knowledge. As far as having a newsong, the new analyst may have to write a dissertation that is basedlargely on the writing of the original shaman/medicine man, Junghimself. One of the main differences in the analyst/medicine mantradition is that these individuals do not necessarily have to go throughthe Indian sickness and their calling may emerge from ego/personalneeds for more knowledge and possibly for power.10 Therefore, we havea parallel between Jungian analysts and the Navajo medicine mantradition, as Sander illustrates, and this parallel speaks to similaritiesthat may exist between the two worlds.However, despite similarities in the initiatory process of Jungiananalysts and medicine men, there are profound differences in thefundamental, underlying archetype that drives the process. Jung comesfrom a patriarchal tradition where science rules the worldview, and Jungin his Collected Works makes no secret that he is first and foremost aman of science (in Jung’s Red Book, on the other hand, he rants andraves against rationalism and suggests that—at the time of writingThe Red Book at least—he preferred the irrational to the rational).That said, Jung comes from a patriarchal Western tradition of healingwhere rationalism, empiricism, and the scientific method form thealtar upon which all knowing is based. Native Healers, on the contrary,have a tradition that is rooted in a female mythology, and it is directexperience of the world, spirit, and psyche that the Native healer utilizesas part of the healing work they do within a specified traditional/tribalcontext.
MEDICINE WHEEL, MANDALA, AND JUNG7The fact that Jung came from a masculine/scientific mythos shedslight on his intrigue with “primitive” peoples. By using Jung’s ownconcepts of anima and animus we can make some logical assumptionsas to what was pulling Grandpa Jung to be with so-called primitives.Is it possible that Jung was projecting his collective Western anima ontothe collective psyche of a more female, matrilineal group of people?Was he even trying in some way to heal the collective split in the Westernpsyche that occurred when patriarchy became supreme? Why else washe so driven to the Taos people, and why did he persist for so long intrying to find out the workings of the psyche of the Taos people?11Perhaps Jung was searching for balance within himself betweenpatriarchal anima and matrilineal anima as well as for balance in thecollective, which is part of the shaman’s task, i.e. the shaman learns hisnew song in the underworld during his initiatory process and thenbrings this new song, or medicine, back for the community.One of the cornerstones of Jungian and Native healing is the processof transference (much has been written on this topic, so I will limitthis discussion to fundamental parallel processes.). Having been themost prominent disciple of Freud, it stands to reason that Jung’sfoundational notions about transference were influenced by Freudianideas on transference. Native healers’ awareness of transference also hassimilarities to Freudian ideas, although these Native ideas on the topicemerged independent of Freud and have been acknowledged and takeninto account in Native healing for hundreds of years.Native healers are aware of the pitfalls and the issues that can cloudthe therapeutic process by the mind wandering into places that arenot part of the therapeutic ceremony. Perhaps the most common kindof transference that is found in both the Jungian/Freudian and Nativehealing ceremony is when sexual energy is transferred to and from thehealer. Native healers who have learned the meaning of this type oftransference know that this sexual energy emerges from the depths ofour bodies, being part of earth, and that earth’s regenerative principleis manifested in this type of transference in an attempt to restoreharmony between masculine and female energies. Native healers openlytalk about masculine/feminine air, water, fire, and earth as integralenergies that act as forces that bring the patients’ air, water, fire, andearth into balance. So in Native way we speak of male rain and femalerain, male lightning and female lightning, etc. Native healers realize
8EDUARDO DURANthat these energies can only be balanced if there is a complete unionbetween masculine and feminine, much in the manner that Jungdiscusses in his ideas borrowed from the alchemical RosariumPhilosophorum.12Figure 1: Medicine wheel.MEDICINE WHEEL, TYPOLOGY, AND TRANSFERENCEThere are similarities between Jung’s typology and Native thinking.A fundamental similarity is that both systems of being in the life-worldhave emerged with a medicine wheel or mandala as part of theunderstanding of the human psyche. In both systems we find that thereare six distinct points within the personality, which correspond to thecardinal directions. Those cardinal points are the four directions—North, South, East, and West, as well as above and below. There isanother level that Freudian thought did not address that I believe Jungcompletely understood, and this idea is also very well known in bothNative shamanic and medicine traditions. The medicine wheelsymbolizes what Jung refers to as “individuation” that in many Nativetribes is experienced as the struggle for attaining wholeness, harmony,and psychic balance. The medicine wheel is a circle that is in movement.
MEDICINE WHEEL, MANDALA, AND JUNG9At each of the cardinal points there are spirit “grandfathers andgrandmothers” that take the supplication/prayer of the person and takethese prayers directly to the Great Mystery. By doing so the supplicantplaces him/herself at the center of the cardinal points that is known asthe seventh sacred direction. At this point the supplicant is in harmonyand balance with the spirit world as well as with the physical world.Natural law13 moves towards harmony and this movement of energytowards harmony moves to the center of the medicine wheel/mandalawhich the patient and healer are part of during the ceremony of analysisor traditional ritual. A main difference in Jung’s mandala and the Nativemedicine wheel is that the medicine wheel is not static and thereforein actuality it is a swastika. Jung’s typology can be seen through a graphicrepresentation of a mandala as in Figure 2.Figure 2: This figure illustrates a Mandala that is static. The types arefixed in opposition to one another, and this typology is part of Jung’sinterpretation of how these parts of the psyche interact with one anotheras the person moves toward individuation.
10EDUARDO DURANThrough their training, the healer/analyst either consciously orunconsciously provides the empty space for the transference of theenergies mentioned earlier (male/female, air, earth, water, fire). Ideally,if the healer were in perfect balance with these energies, the transferencewould be instantly resolved by the energy in question being unitedwith its opposite and balancing out. This ideal situation where allenergies are balanced does not exist in real life and as a result, the energythat is attracted may be transferred from the analysand/patient to thehealer. Most Native shaman/healers are aware of this type oftransference and understand it as a direct transfer of the illness/sickness/spirit of the patient to them. The healer/shaman either transforms theillness within themselves or sends the energy to an external source. Whenthis occurs Native healers have ceremonial cleansing ceremonies forthemselves to balance out the energy that has been transferred to them.This cleansing usually entails giving the “sickness” back to the earthwith the intent that the earth will transform this energy into healingenergy for all beings. The duality of “sickness and healing” as beingpart of the same energetic process, is fully realized, and most Nativehealers know that all healing ceremonies carry a shadow potential whichmust be addressed and in order to restore balance within the energythat is being dealt with.Jung understood the idea of the transfer of energy as a real eventmuch in the same way that Native healers understand it. AlthoughJung struggled to be a Western scientist, he did have his slips whichallow us to see his deeper understanding of the transference. An exampleof how Jung’s thinking on transference parallels those of Native healerscan be seen in the following quote:Many projections can ultimately be integrated back into theindividual once he has recognized their subjective origin; othersresist integration, and although they may be detached from theiroriginal objects, they thereupon transfer themselves to thedoctor In other words, the neurotic maladjustment of thepatient is now transferred to him It is inevitable that the doctorshould be influenced to a certain extent and even that his nervoushealth should suffer.14Most Native healers would completely agree with thisinterpretation of transference. Later on, Jung clarifies his ideas ontransference by making stronger statements. For example, he says:
MEDICINE WHEEL, MANDALA, AND JUNG11The doctor, by voluntarily and consciously taking over thepsychic sufferings of the patient, exposes himself to theoverpowering contents of the unconscious and hence also to theirinductive action Yet this lack of insight is an ill counselor, forthe unconscious infection brings with it the therapeuticpossibility—which should not be underestimated—of the illnessbeing transferred to the doctor.15The similarities in the understanding of transference between theNative view and Jung are truly remarkable. Jung utilizes Westernconcepts such as the word “unconscious”, which can easily besubstituted by the word “spirit” in the Native understanding. If wedo that, we then have an exact copy of understanding between the twoworlds of the phenomenon of transference. Because these energiesemerge out of natural law, it makes sense that both systems of healingwould have a parallel understanding of the energies that underlie thekind of relationship that brings harmony and coniunctio to the healingprocess. Even though there is a difference in the mythological makeupof Western and Native American people, the same underlying principlesof balance and harmony are operative in both. Regarding the psycheand natural law, Jung explains, “ if only because, together with lifeitself, it is the only natural factor capable of converting statisticalorganizations which are subject to natural law into higher or unnaturalstates, in opposition to the rule of entropy that runs throughout theinorganic realm”.16 In essence, as we move closer to the archetypes andthe place where archetypes are born, we are moving to a place in whichnatural law pervades. The fact that natural law governs the birth ofJung’s archetypes as well as Native spirit gives us a place where bothhealing systems are exactly the same.17“Ah my brother, you will never know the happiness of thinkingnothing and doing nothing. This is the most delightful thing there isnext to sleep. So we were before birth: and so shall be after death”.18These were the words spoken to Jung by Taos Native, Ochwiay Biano,when Jung visited Taos in 1925. On the surface it appears as if OchwiayBiano is content with not knowing and might perhaps become theobject of stereotypes that are directed at Native People. In reality, he isdeconstructing Jung’s typology without ever having heard of Jung’stypology. In essence, he is talking about a transcendent dimensionwhere there is no thinking function as a dominant function and about
12EDUARDO DURANa totally different form of consciousness. In no way is the Taos persontalking about remaining unconscious in the Jungian sense, and this ismanifested in the tremendous amount of energy that is expended byNative people in ceremony with the sole purpose of becoming awareof awareness itself.Native psychology differs in its understanding of psyche, at leastas it relates to Jung’s typology as described in his classic text on thistopic. Where Jung has Intuition opposite of Sensation on the horizontalaxis, it would make more sense from the Native perspective to haveintuition/sensation on the same point of the horizontal axis. This wouldleave the right side of the horizontal axis empty if this were a staticmodel. The Native understanding of the psyche as not separate fromthe rest of cosmology allows for sensation and intuition to be the sameas part of earth’s awareness, i.e. psyche. Therefore, by having thesefunctions rotating around the center or the 7th Sacred direction it ispossible for earth awareness to become aware of itself in the humanFigure 3: Earth’s Awareness.
MEDICINE WHEEL, MANDALA, AND JUNG13psyche as the source of all forms that give all meaning to our lives. It isin this dynamic relationship of earth and matter where earth’s intuitionbecomes known to the individual as the knower of awareness thatbecomes aware of consciousness.It is interesting that the Sanskrit origin of the word Swastika means“that which is associated with well-being.” Because energy seeks tobalance itself, it moves in the direction of an open space—it’s moremercurial and directionless, but in order to make the point I use a vectorimage here.Intuition, understood from a Native cosmology, is that instantawareness that emerges out of earth contact, i.e. the sensation functionto the Jungian theoretician. Jung came close to the Native understandingof intuition as grounded in earth contact when he said in hisZarathustra seminars: “You probably noticed that peculiar expression,the four square body. The body is of course very much the earth, andit speaketh of the meaning of the earth means that inasmuch as theFigure 4: This figure illustrates a Medicine Wheel that is in movement.The types are not static and are in constant movement around thecenter. Earth awareness develops as intuition/sensation rotate togetheraround the center or the Seventh Sacred Direction in an act of theongoing dream dreaming itself and in so doing creation of awarenessthat becomes aware of consciousness develops.
14EDUARDO DURANbody has produced consciousness, it produces the meaning of theearth This shows that if one remains persistent in the hidden,unspoken purpose, then the very nature of the earth, the hidden linesin the earth will lead you”.19 Earth intuition can be understood throughthe medicine wheel teaching of the seventh sacred direction (the centerof the six cardinal points). The center is where the spatiotemporalreality becomes united with the transcendental and becomes the axismundi within our realm of existence. Within the center it is possibleto be at one with the earth’s knowing, which is manifested as intuitionin the human psyche. Most Native healers that deal with this type ofunderstanding would have said what Jung said in the above statementin precisely the same manner, if not the same words. The fact that theearth (which is what our human body is comprised of ) producesconsciousness illustrates to me that sensation, or contact with the earth,becomes knowing or awareness of the earth herself. Therefore, all thatwe know is “earth awareness” and is experienced when the humanpsyche is at the seventh direction. This “earth awareness” must bebrought into balance by the ego through a balancing of typology astaught by Jung. Typology from the Native understanding leaves an openspace on the horizontal plane where “intuition” is placed in Jung’sschema. (See Figure 3) Once the individual has become aware/conscious of earth via the thinking and feeling function, theopportunity arises for a more transcendent understanding. The personcould be content to sit at the center of the cardinal points and be atthe seventh sacred direction, which by all explanations could be anideal form of balance and harmony within the personality. (See Figure1) However, typology from a Native perspective takes balance andharmony to another level through a purposeful disruption of theachieved balance. While it is believed that one can sit at the seventhsacred direction at the moment of death, once all the functions andawareness are in balance, this balance and nirvana state unfortunatelyis not allowed while in the earth body because the earth continues toevolve towards higher consciousness. This notion of the evolution ofearth awareness—of psyche—is very consistent with Jung’s theory ofindividuation. Underlying this we again find that there is natural law(Jung’s unconscious, via the archetype of the Self ) driving the process.One possibility of the open space in Native typology (the openspace in the intuition side of Jung’s typology) could be understood as
MEDICINE WHEEL, MANDALA, AND JUNG15the archetype of the Self. In the Jungian view, the Self is a quantity that is superordinate to the consciousego. [See Figure 3] It embraces not only the conscious but alsothe unconscious psyche, and is therefore, so to speak, a personalitywhich we also are But it transcends our powers of imaginationto form a clear picture of what we are as a self, for in this operationthe part would have to comprehend the whole. There is littlehope of our ever being able to reach even approximateconsciousness of the self.20Therefore it seems that the empty space in the typology constructindicates to both the Native and to Jung that there is a part of thepersonality that remains part of the Mystery, yet is driven by naturallaw to continue its quest towards awareness/consciousness. If the personhas integrated many of the complexes, including parts of the shadow,ego, and portions of archetypes which would create chaos in theindividual if left undifferentiated, then the ego complex can actuallysit at the seventh sacred direction and be aware of the journey that isrequired by the opening of the quadrant of the Self/Mystery archetype.This describes what Jungians refer to as “Ego-Self dialogue.”Fundamental differences between the Western and Native worldscan be seen in the manifestation of ritual or ceremony. The ritual ofJungian analysis takes place in an office container and has its roots inthe alchemical hermetic vessel. This vessel is left up to the imaginationof the analyst and the analysand within the transference f
Jung himself was initiated via the shamanic tradition. His journey through the desert and underworld, as described in his Red Book, are classic to shamanic initiations the world over.7 In The Red Book8 and in Memories, Dreams, Reflections,9 Jung describes how his psyche was dism
dhamma-cakka, the wheel of law of the Buddha, and urasi-cakka, the wheel of torture. [1] To this list Gurulugomi [2] adds praharaṇa-cakra, the discus, asani-cakka, the wheel of thunderbolt, dāru-cakka, the wheel-right’s wooden wheel, and saṃsāra-cakka, the Wheel of Life. The last mentioned wheel is also known as bhava-cakka, the Wheel .
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Morgan’s work is much akin to Jung’s Red Book, although Jung worked on the Red Book longer and with more conscious investment as to its outcome. Nevertheless if Jung’s Liber Novus depicts the rebirth of God by integrating God’s dark side, then Mo
Jung's oeuvre by posing some questions whose answers will indicate at least the main outlines of Jung's thought about the problem of evil. 1 hope, too, that this approach will prepare the reader to enter more deeply into the texts that follow and to watch Jung as he struggles with the problem of evil,
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academic writing setting and culture in their respective learning establishments do not prepare them for the conventions of English writing. Abbas (2011) investigated metadiscourse terms and phrases to understand the socio-cultural variances of Arabic and English-speaking researchers. Abbas analysed seventy discussions of linguistic academic journals composed by native speakers of Arabic as .
