COMPACT, LIGHTWEIGHT, HIGH EFFICIENCY ROTARY ENGINE
2018 NDIA GROUND VEHICLE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGYSYMPOSIUMPOWER & MOBILITY (P&M) TECHNICAL SESSIONAUGUST 7-9, 2018 - NOVI, MICHIGANCOMPACT, LIGHTWEIGHT, HIGH EFFICIENCY ROTARY ENGINE FORGENERATOR, APU, AND RANGE-EXTENDED ELECTRIC VEHICLESAlexander Shkolnik, PhD, Nikolay Shkolnik, PhDJeff Scarcella, Mark NickersonAlexander Kopache, Kyle BeckerMichael Bergin, PhD, Adam SpitulnikRodrigo Equiluz, Ryan FaganSaad Ahmed, Sean Donnelly, Tiago CostaLiquidPiston, Inc.Bloomfield, CTABSTRACTToday automotive gasoline combustion engine’s are relatively inefficient.Diesel engines are more efficient, but are large and heavy, and are typically notused for hybrid electric applications. This paper presents an optimizedthermodynamic cycle dubbed the High Efficiency Hybrid Cycle, with 75%thermodynamic efficiency potential, as well as a new rotary ‘X’ type enginearchitecture that embodies this cycle efficiently and compactly, while addressingthe challenges of prior Wankel-type rotary engines, including sealing, lubrication,durability, and emissions. Preliminary results of development of a CompressionIgnited 30 kW X engine targeting 45% (peak) brake thermal efficiency arepresented. This engine aims to fit in a 10” box, with a weight of less than 40 lb,and could efficiently charge a battery to extend the range of an electric vehicle.INTRODUCTIONToday’s Diesel / heavy-fueled engines, whilerelatively efficient, are large and heavy, with apower-to-weight ratio of approximately .1-.2 hp/lb(see, e.g., [12]). This paper presents a new type ofrotary Diesel combustion engine architecture (the“X Engine”), which is based on an optimizedthermodynamic cycle: the High Efficiency HybridCycle (HEHC). Together, these innovations canincrease fuel efficiency by 30% or more, andsignificantly improve power-to-weight of Dieselengines to 1 hp/lb or better.This paper will overview the HEHCthermodynamic cycle and rotary X engine, shownin Figure 1, and will describe the developmentstatus of the X4, a .8L Compression IgnitionFigure 1: 70cc heavy fueled XMD engineStatement A: Approved for Public Release; Distribution is Unlimited.
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)engine, funded by the Defense AdvancedResearch Projects Agency (DARPA), withaggressive targets including: 30 kW power, andpower to weight of 1 hp/lb Operating on theHEHC cycle, the X4 engine can potentiallyachieve very high brake thermal efficiency of upto 45%. Today, small ( 1.0 L) piston Dieselengines, such as the Kohler KDW1003 in use inPolaris Diesel Ranger all-terrain vehicles,typically achieve efficiency on the order of 33%peak, which drops off at part power [13]. Likeother engines [7], the X-engine efficiency alsoimproves with scale; 1-D thermodynamic modelsestimate 57% brake thermal efficiency for a 200kW size engine.The paper will also provide an overview of asecond smaller X engine, the “X Mini Diesel”(XMD), a small (70cc) spark-ignited (SI) multifueled engine (Figure 1) that is heavy fuelcompatible, which is currently being developedfor insertion into a hybrid electric power supply topower the digital fire control system of the M777Howitzer (Figure 21).Lastly, the paper will provide an overview ofapplications for the engines.MotivationDiesel compression ignition (CI) engines, whichoperate at high compression ratio / high pressure,tend to be more fuel efficient than gasolineengines, but are also large and heavy. Forlogistical purposes, military applications prefer tooperate on JP8 fuel (a heavy fuel, similar tokerosene), and increasingly demand higherefficiency and improved power-to-weight. Nonmilitary applications also benefit from similarimprovements. The work presented in this paperaddresses both of these areas of efficiency andsize/weight.The X engine can scale much like other engines,and could be used for primary propulsion invehicles. Another area of particular interest forsuch an engine may be as a range extender forelectric vehicles. In this approach, a vehicle maybe powered electrically with a small battery packwhich is intermittently charged by an efficient andcompact Diesel power generator based on the30 kW X4 engine. This approach could eliminatethe bulk of an electric vehicle battery pack,reducing vehicle cost and weight, while improvingefficiency (on a well-to-wheel basis), and alsoreducing the logistical burden.The proposed program targets of the X4 are veryaggressive, as could be seen in comparison of theX4 to compiled published gasoline and dieselspecific power and specific efficiency data, asampling of which is shown in Figure 2 [8]. Thegreen box shows the target bounds of the X4 whendevelopment is completed.Figure 2: X4 vs. Benchmark DataHigh Efficiency Hybrid CycleA key differentiator of the X engine is the abilityto run on the High Efficiency Hybrid Cycle. In anidealized case, this thermodynamic cyclecombines features from several other cycles,combining them into an efficiency-optimizedcycle. The features of HEHC (referring to Figure3) include:1 2High compression ratio of air (similar toDiesel cycle).Compact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 2 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)2 33 4“The problem is simply that [a piston]engine cannot conduct combustion atconstant volume, i.e., instantaneously atTDC, because a real burning processtakes time, the piston keeps moving, andthe cylinder volume changes. If this latterproblem could be remedied by keepingthe piston stationary at tdc whilecombustion took place and then moving itdown on the power stroke when all isburned, the imep and power wouldincrease by some 50%. [ ] I wouldactually encourage the world's inventorsto keep on trying to accomplish this icengine equivalent of the ‘search for theHoly Grail’.”Fuel is injected, mixed and burnedunder approximately constant volumeconditions (similar to ideal Otto cycle).The expansion ratio can be designed tobe greater than the compression ratio,enabling the engine to run overexpanded (similar to Atkinson cycle).Figure 3: P-V diagram comparing ideal airstandard cyclesIn the X engine, high compression is achieved bydisplacing and compressing the trapped air into astationary combustion chamber in the housing.The combustion chamber can have a small volume(thereby increasing compression ratio). Thischamber can be thermally isolated from the rest ofthe engine and could potentially run hot to reduceheat transfer during combustion. Both SI and CI,as well as indirect or direct injection (IDI and DI)type combustion is possible.The unique geometry of the X engine causes adwell near Top Dead Center (TDC), where therotor is spinning, but the volume is not changingvery much. This flatter volume profile gives theengine more time to combust more fully undernear-“constant volume” conditions. The benefit ofconstant volume combustion is eloquentlycaptured in a text by Gordon Blair [6, page 81]:The HEHC cycle has been analyzed anddescribed previously in detail [1]. Figure 3(adapted from [1]) shows visually a comparison ofideal Otto, Diesel, and HEHC cycles. In that work,the HEHC is shown to have approximately 30%higher efficiency than comparable Otto / Dieselcycles. More complete thermodynamic modelingof the actual engine cycle has also been completedusing 1D simulation (GT Power), and the resultssummarized in the Modeling section below,suggests that 45% brake thermal efficiency ispossible in the 30 kW size X engine.Additional details of the cycle, X enginearchitecture, and development of a small SI 70ccX engine as well as the 30 kW .8L X4 engine aredescribed in [1-3, 10]. The interested reader isalso referred to view an animation of the ‘X’engine here [4].X engine vs WankelThe Wankel rotary engine (Figure 4, Left) [5]was developed in the 1960s as an alternativeengine architecture. The engine demonstratedexcellent power to weight characteristics andexhibited low vibration even at high RPM. Theengine was also very responsive, making for a funCompact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 3 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)driving sports car in the Mazda RX series.Despite these advantages, the Wankel was alwaysplagued by poor fuel economy, emissionsproblems, and durability issues, especially in theapex / tip seals. These challenges are due to anumber of inherent issues: 1) a narrow combustionchamber prevents adequate flame propagation,while also having high surface to volume ratiowhich cools the charge and reduces efficiency; 2)the engine is poorly sealed, leading to significantblowby, thereby decreasing efficiency; 3) theWankel engine operates on the same conventional4-stroke Otto cycle with spark ignition as a pistonengine; however there are inherent challenges tooperate 10:1 compression ratio, and this enginewas forced to compete with piston engines thathad over one hundred years of prior development;and 4) the tip seals, in addition to being difficult toseal, are also difficult to lubricate; oil must beinjected into the charge, with the majority of theoil burned in order to lubricate the gas seals.The ‘X’ engine essentially “inverts” the Wankelengine (see Figure 4). While a Wankel enginehas a 3-sided triangular rotor, within a 2-lobedoval housing, the X engine has a 2-lobed ovalrotor in a 3-sided housing. The X engine capturesthe main advantages of the Wankel, including 1)high power-to-weight ratio [a one rotor X enginebehaves like a 3-cylinder 4-stroke]; 2) simplicity– having only 2 moving parts – a rotor, and ashaft; and 3) like the Wankel - the X engine isinherently balanced with no oscillatingcomponents, therefore having minimal vibration.Unlike the Wankel however, there are several keydifferentiators which address the bulk of the olderWankel’s design deficiencies: The combustion chamber in the X engine islocated in the stationary housing, with most of thegas displaced during compression into thisstationary combustion chamber. This makes the Xengine uniquely suitable for high compressionratio operation with Direct Injection andFigure 4: Wankel Engine (left) vs X Engine (right). X Engine features spherical combustionchamber and stationary apex seals which can be lubricated from the housing. Red combustion;Blue Intake; Yellow Exhaust.Compact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 4 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)Compression Ignition (which is not possible in theWankel without boosting or a second compressionrotor). Additionally, the combustion chamber cantake any geometry, and can be approximatelyspherical, optimized for surface to volume ratio,thereby improving combustion efficiency andreducing heat transfer. The apex seals of the X engine are locatedwithin the stationary housing, and do not movewith the rotor. The seals do not experiencecentrifugal forces, and can be lubricated directlyby metering small amounts of oil directly to thesealing surface through the housings, which meansthat oil consumption can be reduced to levelspotentially comparable to that of a 4-stroke pistonengine (essentially negligible). See oil channelsfor apex seals in Figure 6. The unique sealing geometry of the X enginehas 3-5 times less blowby than the Wankel rotary.This is mainly because 1) the Wankel requiresclearance at the corners between its side/face sealsand its apex seals, while the X engine does not;and 2) the Wankel seals traverse across holes thatcontain spark plug(s), whereas the X engine doesnot.The sealing strategy, seal modeling, andtesting validation is described in detail in [9].As mentioned, LiquidPiston has developed twoversions of the X engine, including the air-cooledSI (multi-fueled) 70cc X Mini, as well as theliquid cooled CI .8L X4 engine. The optimalefficiency benefits described in [1] cannot be fullyrealized in the small spark ignition (SI) enginewhich has been described previously in [2] and[3]. To realize the high efficiency potential, theHEHC cycle requires a high compression ratio foroptimal performance. This is best achieved withcompression ignition (CI) and heavy fuel. In thiswork, we show a step toward developing the X4engine which runs on Diesel / JP-8, achieves stateof-the-art (or better) CI fuel efficiencies, andoffers a significant weight advantage comparableto current engines of similar performance.X4 EngineGeometry specificationThe most significant parameters defining thegeometry of an X engine are the values for E, R,Rr, and engine housing thickness. E is theeccentricity, R is the radius from the centerline ofthe crankshaft to the center of the apex seal radius,Rr is the apex seal roller radius, and the housingthickness is the width of chosen geometry parallelto the crankshaft center line. These parameters aredescribed in Figure 5 below, and the parametersspecific to the X4 engine are shown in Table 1.Figure 5: X Engine Generating ParametersTable 1: X4 Design ParametersER13mm83mmRrHousing ThicknessDisplacement (per chamber)1.46mm45.4mm250ccDisplacement (total)750ccCompact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 5 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)The X4 test rig is shown below in Figures 6 and7. The size is larger than the final intent in orderto make space for combustion chamber variations,and to accommodate standard diesel fuel injectors.These dimensions will be reduced in future phasesof the program.to account for deviation such as non-standardcrank-slider mechanism, volume and surface areaprofiles.A summary of important input assumptions andoutput results are shown in Figure 8. Case 4shows a pathway towards the Objective(aggressive) efficiency target, and Case 1 theThreshold (conservative) target. The “Leak Area”is an equivalent blow-by orifice which representsgas leakage through the combustion seals. Thisvalue has been measured at 0.5 to 1.5 mm 2 basedon motoring compression data. The friction andheat transfer values are based on prior work on the3 horsepower X engines. Peak Cylinder Pressureof 108 bar, predicted from the GT model, wasused for component design. The correspondingPressure vs. Volume diagram for Case 1 (red) andCase 4 (blue) are shown in Figure 9.Figure 6: X4 Engine front view cross sectionFigure 7: X4 SizePerformance ModelingA GT Power model of the X4 engine was createdto validate the chosen displacement of the engine,analyze the feasibility of meeting the 45% brakeefficiency target, and provide gas load curves forcomponent analysis.GT Power is a 1Dthermodynamics and flow simulation software byGamma Technologies which is commonly used tosimulate piston engines. In order to simulate therotary X engine, some customizations were madeCase No.14Burn Duration66 44 Start Of Combustiontiming-30 -16.5 Leak areas (mm2)2.51.5Friction8.3% offuel7.8% offuelHeat transfer27.9% offuel16.5%of fuelPumping loss1.80% offuel1.66%of fuelGeometric CompressionRatio720 Indicated ThermalEfficiency222438.10%45.50%Brake power (kW)24.532.8Peak Cylinder Pressure(PCP) (bar, absolute)88108Average cylinder P (bar)8.529.46Engine Speed (RPM)70007000Figure 8: X4 GT Power Inputs/OutputsCompact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 6 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)Figure 9: PV Diagram for GT CyclesTestingSome images of engine parts and assembly areshown in figures 10-11. LiquidPiston’s AC dynotest cell with the X4 engine mounted is shown inFigure 12. The engine was equipped with incylinder pressure transducers, torque sensor,various thermocouples, and was controlled by aNational Instruments / Drivven data acquisition /control system on an AC motoring dyno.Some example images of pressure traces fromthe engine are shown in Figures 13-15. Figure 13demonstrates the highest observed peak pressure,which exceeded 140 bar of cylinder pressure. Thiswas achieved by combusting with an IDI typecombustion chamber, at a 26:1 compression ratio,naturally aspirated.Due to the inefficiency of throttled combustionin an IDI type chamber, DI was explored next.Figure 14 demonstrates an example of DIcompression ignition, at a 20:1 compression ratio,showing firing (green) vs motoring (red). So farthe engine has been run at up to 5.5 bar IndicatedMean Effective Pressure (IMEP), up to 3,500Revolutions Per Minute (RPM).Future workThe engine testing to date demonstrates stableoperation at up to 150 bar of peak cylinderpressure. Seals were demonstrated to havesuccessfully held up to such pressure. Upondisassembly, nothing remarkable was observed inthe rotor, gear, bearings, shaft, and housings.Engine testing so far has been conducted withoutany cooling, just to verify the structural integrityand basic operation of the core components. Acooling system with a water jacket in the housingand oil cooling of the rotor was recently developedfor the engine, and testing for the cooled system iscurrently ongoing. Cooling of the engine isnecessary to run the engine for longer periods athotter conditions, necessary to do measurementsof peak efficiency as well as further work foroptimization.Packaging the engine with balance of plantcomponents (fueling, cooling, control &lubrication systems), as well as optimizing forpower and efficiency, remains as future work.Figure 10: Rotor AssemblyCompact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 7 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)Figure 13: Highest Pressure Cycles(26:1 compression ratio, IDI combustion)Average Cycle P vs. CA - Test8 Run14Figure 11: X4 assembly, view fromIndicatedFlywheelTorque, Cham ber 1: -2.59 ft-lbIndicatedTorque, Cham ber 2: 4.2 ft-lbSide120Indicated Torque, Cham ber 3: -2.68 ft-lb100Chamber 1Chamber 2Chamber 3Max Pressure, Cham ber 1: 53.95 bar80Pressure [bar]Max Pressure, Cham ber 2: 86.77 barMax Pressure, Cham ber 3: 54.24 bar6040200-120-60060Crank Angle [CAD]120180Figure 14: Example firing vs motoring traces,20:1 compression ratio (Direct Injection).Firing trace has a first (pilot) injection at -55and a second injection at -11 degrees aftertop dead center.Figure 12: X4 Test SetupCompact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 8 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)X Mini EngineAs mentioned above, LiquidPiston has alsodeveloped a small 70cc X engine called the XMini Diesel (XMD), shown in Figures 16 - 18.This TRL-6 engine is air cooled, and operated onspark ignition, and is therefore compatible with avariety of different fuel types. The engine hasbeen run on gasoline, kerosene, and Jet A fuels.Figure 15: Example of Pressure (bar) vs.Crank Angle (deg.) of 50 consecutive firingcycles overlaid, showing COV IMEP of 0.4%.This data had early fuel injection withobjective of increased cylinder pressurerather than increased IMEP.Figure 17: XMD 70cc SI engineFigure 16: X Mini engine specifications. Alpha prototype today; Beta prototype near termtarget; compared with Mature design targetsCompact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 9 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)Figure 18: X Mini engine powered go-kart(small vehicle demo)ApplicationsThe X engine is scalable, from a few hp, up to athousand hp, and applications are generally similarto piston engines. The engine could be used, forexample, for primary propulsion (Figure 18) or forhybrid electric power or range extension of anelectric vehicle (see e.g. Figure 19).A unique feature of rotary engines, including theX engine, is the ability to run at high speed, withlittle to no vibration, while maintaining highvolumetric efficiency, due to a lack of valves.This means that more power can be attained fromsmaller displacement, and makes these enginesespecially interesting for applications wherepower is more valuable than torque. For example,the ‘X’ engine, at approximately 1 hp/lb is about5-10 times lighter and smaller than comparablepiston engines in terms of power. The torqueadvantage of the X engine, which is a function of{volume x vol. efficiency x brake efficiency},is not dependent on RPM, and therefore the“specific torque” is only 2-3 times better than apiston engine. Given the particular advantage inpower, this makes the engine particularlyinteresting for generating electric power.Figure 19: X Artist rendering of an X engine poweredall-terrain vehicleCompact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 10 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)Figure 20: Artist depiction of (Left): 30 kWAMMPS Generator, which weighs 2215 lbs.,vs (Right): a 30 kW generator that weighs 150lbs., based on the X4 engine.Further leveraging the lightweight aspect of theX engine, consider that alternators becomesmaller, lighter, and more efficient when operatedat higher speed. The X engine, operating at highspeed, can therefore be coupled with extremelylightweight and efficient alternators, making anoverall electrical power generation systemcompact, lightweight, and efficient. Such a systemcan be used for hybrid electric power / rangeextension, allowing the use of smaller batteriesand offering ability to rapidly refuel the system (asopposed to a purely electrical power supply, inwhich a battery would take a long time to charge);or as a mobile power generator for expeditionaryapplications (see Figure 20).While batteries are improving on average severalpercentage points each year, consider that eventoday’s best batteries, e.g. Tesla’s Model 3 batterypack, offers specific energy of only 168 Wh/kg.This compares to Diesel fuel, which has a specificenergy of 13,762 Wh/kg, a difference of 82-fold.A hybrid electric power system based on the Xengine therefore combines the advantages of1) a compact, and efficient engine architecture; 2)a high speed alternator that is compact andefficient; and 3) leveraging fuel that has very highspecific energy content, compared to battery-onlysolutions.A small 2 kWe hybrid electric power system iscurrently under development for the M777Howitzer, under funding from the Army under theRapid Innovation Fund by PM-TAS (see Figure21). The engine has been demonstrated as agenerator in “breadboard” configuration (Figure22, Page 12), and is being matured to TRL 6 under the Rapid Innovation Fund program.Figure 21: Artist Rendering of Compact Artillery Power System (CAPS), hybrid electric powergenerator for M777 HowitzerCompact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 11 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)Figure 22: 2kW X Mini Diesel (XMD) engine(Top), inserted into a Generator "Breadboard"(Bottom)ConclusionsThis paper presented the rotary X engine andHEHC cycle, especially focusing on a new 30 kWcompression ignition version of the engine that iscurrently under development. Preliminary resultsdemonstrate the X4 platform is capable ofoperating with compression ignition on Dieselfuel. Future work will include optimizing thepower and efficiency of the engine, addition of acooling system, and optimizing the packaging ofthe engine to achieve 1 hp/lb. A smaller sparkignited (heavy fueled / multi-fueled) engine, wasalso presented, including current status ofintegrating the engine into a hybrid electric powersupply for the M777.References[1] Shkolnik, N. and Shkolnik, A., "Rotary HighEfficiency Hybrid Cycle Engine," SAETechnical Paper 2008-01-2448, 2008.doi:10.4271/2008-01-2448.[2] Shkolnik, A., Littera, D., Nickerson, M.,Shkolnik, N. et al., "Development of a SmallRotary SI/CI Combustion Engine," SAETechnical Paper 2014-32-0104, 2014.doi:10.4271/2014-32-0104.[3] Littera, D., Kopache, A., Machamada, Sun, C.,et al., “Development of the XMv3 HighEfficiency Cycloidal Engine,” SAE TechnicalPaper 2015-32-0719.[4] "How It Works." LiquidPiston. AccessedJanuary 22, s/[5] Wankel, Felix. Rotary internal combustionengine . US Patent US2988065 A, filedNovember 17, 1958, and issued June 13, 1961.[6] Blair, Gordon P. Design and Simulation ofFour-Stroke Engines. Warrandale, PA: SAEInternational, 1999.[7] Heywood, John B. Internal CombustionEngine Fundamentals. New York: McGrawHill, 1988.[8] Shkolnik, A., “Fuel Efficient, Light-Weight,Heavy-Fueled Rotary Combustion EngineProgram”, Final report submitted to DARPAunder Agreement No. HR0011-15-9-0005,January 09 2016.[9] Leboeuf, M., Picard, M., Shkolnik, A.,Shkolnik, N., et al., “Performance of a LowBlowby Sealing System for a High EfficiencyRotary Engine” SAE Technical Paper 201801-0372. Proceedings of the 2018 SAE WorldCongress.[10] Nickerson, M., Kopache, A., Shkolnik, A.,Becker, K. et al., “Preliminary Development ofa 30 kW Heavy Fueled Compression IgnitionRotary ‘X’ Engine with Target 45% BrakeThermal Efficiency,” SAE Technical Paper2018-01-0885, 2018, doi:10.4271/2018-01-Compact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 12 of 13
Proceedings of the 2018 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS)0885. Proceedings of the 2018 SAE WorldCongress.[11] Moskalik, A., Hula, A., Barba, D., and Kargul,J., "Investigating the Effect of AdvancedAutomatic Transmissions on FuelConsumption Using Vehicle Testing andModeling," SAE Int. J. Engines 9(3):19161928, 2016, https://doi.org/10.4271/2016-011142.[12] Specifications: KDI1903M Diesel KDIMechanical KOHLER. (n.d.). Retrieved July12, 2018, i1903m[13] Specifications: Kohler Diesel ModelKDW1003 High Speed Open Power Unit.Retrieved July 12 2018 kdw1003hs.pdfMark Gustafson, and Agreement OfficerRepresentative LTC Joshua M. Keena; and the USArmy (PM-TAS) / Rapid Innovation Fund,especially Matthew Brogneri. The views,opinions, and/or findings contained in this paperare those of the author(s) and should not beinterpreted as representing the official views orpolicies of the Department of Defense or the ion ignitionSIspark ignitionHEHCHigh Efficiency HybridCycleEeccentricityRrroller radiusContact InformationThe authors may be reached atinfo@liquidpiston.com.RradiusPCPpeak cylinder pressureIDIindirect injectionAcknowledgmentsThe authors wish to thank other members of theengineering / technical team which helped in thedesign, development and testing of the X Mini andX4 engines, and all of the suppliers, contractors,interns, investors, and others that have helpedalong the way.We thank DARPA (Defense Advanced ResearchProjects Agency) for partially funding this work,and especially the support of Program ManagerDIdirect injectionTDCtop dead centerDARPADefense Advanced ResearchProjects AgencyCOVcoefficient of variationIMEPindicated mean effectivepressure.Compact, Lightweight, High Efficiency Rotary Engine for Generator, APU, and Range-extended Electric Vehicles, Shkolnik, et al.Page 13 of 13
architecture, and development of a small SI 70cc X engine as well as the 30 kW .8L X4 engine are described in [1-3, 10]. The interested reader is also referred to view an animation of the ‘X’ engine here [4]. X engine vs Wankel The Wankel rotary engine (Figure
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ROTARY EVAPORATOR Rotary Evaporator is essentially a thin film evaporator also called rotary vacuum evaporator. A rotary evaporator is a device used in Chemical Laboratories for efficient and gentle removal of solvents from samples by evaporation. The main components of a rotary evaporator are:
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ISO 10360-3 CMMs with the axis of a rotary table as fourth axis Evaluation of a rotary table test according to ISO 10360-3 Marked with are the maximum deviations. Remark: Rotary table errors are always specified for „Rotary table and CMM“. The same rotary table
