Is Information Retrieval In The Arts And Humanities .
Reprinted in Essays of an Information Scientist, Vol:6, p.623-640, 1983IS INFORMATIONRETRIEVALIN THE ARTS ANDHUMANITIES INHERENTLY DIFFERENT FROM THAT INSCIENCE? THE EFFECT THAT lS1 S CITATION INDEX FORTHE ARTS AND HUMANITIES 1S EXPECTED TO HAVE ONFUTURE SCHOLARSHIPEugeneGarfieldInformation retrieval in the arts and humanities differs from that in the sciencesbecause the dOCttmentS required differ in many respects. Nevertheless. theInstitute for Scientific Informatione has successfully ada ted its basic citationindexing system, first used in the Scintct Citatiot Jmiex , to its new dti.s MHymmitiCi@im /n&#.Special adaptations of the system to meet the informmion needs of hutnanities scholars are discussed. The potential effects of thenew index (and resulting data base) are seen as the promotion of interdisciplinary research, accessibility of bibliographic data for saiological and historicalstudies of humanities scholarship, and more objective methods for evaluatinghumanities journals.It is just fifteen years since I was asked by the editor of the AswriamBehuuiortd Scierttd to write an article on the application of citation indexing to the social sciences [1]. This is significant because the SchcFCda6ion hdexe (SCl”) was only about two years old at the time. So I havelong been concerned with the differences between information retrievalin the natural sciences and the social sciences. But my original interest incitation indexing was in its application to the humanities literature—ifwe can agree that the history of science is a division of the humanities.The first paper I ever presented nn the sub ct of citation indexing wason citation indexes to the Bible. It was given in 1955 at a meeting of theAmerican Documentation Institute in Philadelphia [2]. The paper demonstrated the potential value of a “citation index to biblical referencesfound in monographs on the history of science. Although 1 have generally been concerned as an information scientist with the scientific literature for nearly three decades, I havcidso had an abiding interest incitation indexing for the humanities.[Likwy@ 1980by The(@rf?dy,vd. , 00. ], pp.University 01’Chicago.62340-57]0024-f!51W5tMl-0604 61.51
RETRIEVALIN ARTSAND41HUMANITIESOne of the exciting things to me about citation indexing is that it iseffective in radically different areas of scholarship.For, in general, wemay say that informationretrieval in the sciences and in the humanitiesis differentbecause the fundamentalnature of scientific research isdifferent from that of the humanities.This is not to say that scholars inthe arts and sciences do not share a common heritage in the search fortruth. Scientific research is preoccupied,however, with the study of theimpersonalprocesses of the universe. Scientists, including social scientists, look for new facts which are revealed through reproducibleexperiments. Once a fact or datum is confirmed,science moves on to newdiscoveriesbased on its expandedstore of knowledge.In the mostsimplistic terms, then, science may be consideredevolutionary,with newdevelopmentsunfoldingfrom previous research.CitationPracticesin the SciencesA large part of scientific research is done to fill in the paradigms laid outby the occasional revolutionarythinker, as Thomas Kuhn [3] explainedin his classic work on scientific revolutions.’And, both a giant stepforward, like Einstein’s work on relativity and also smaller steps which fillout the paradigms. such as experimentsto prove theories, are communicated in the relatively short space of a journal article. For example, thereport by Watson and Crick on the double helix structure of DNA wasonly 1 or 2 pages in Naturr. Refutationsof theories,incidentally,may occupy more space! Scientists, therefore, are primarily interested inwriting and citing journal articles and in retrieving informationfrom theAnd generallyscientists are what might be calledjournal literature.reductionistswhen it comes to informationretrieval. They are trying tolocate theories anrl methods in the literature that in any way affect theirown immediateresearch. They are also concernedwith priority. Theywant to assure themselvesthat no one else has already publishedtheresearch on which they are working.Since scientists build on their own and others’ previous work, theyhave developeda traditionof referencingearlierresearchthatinfluencedthem. Most reputable scientific journals have set up refereeing procedures in the last fifteen years to help assure good citationpractices, These referencesgive formal recognitionto earlier works;they also are valuable to informationretrieval. They permit the reader tolocate the sources used to support the argument.1. [tis worth mentioning that Kuhn’sthe Nationat Academy of Sciences.workhas recently624beenrewardedby his elcclionto
EUGENE42GARFIELDAnother characteristicof informationretrieval in the sciences is theinterest in relatively recent work. An examinationof the Institute forScientific Information’s(ISI)Journ.uf Cituttbn Reportsa for any journal infields such as physics and chemistry shows that over 60 percent of thecitations are to work published within the last five years. This is also truein biochemistry,although our recent studies with biochemistry journalsshow that the percentage of references to articles from the Iast. five yearshas decreased substantially [4]. Even the most fundamentaldiscoveriesmay cease to be explicitly cited just a few years after publication. But fora journal such as lfistury, only 38 percent of the citations it received in ayear are to articles published in the last five years.CitationPracticesin the HumanitiesIn contrast to scientists’ study of the physical universe, humanists areconcernedwith those human achievementswhich make up our culturalheritage. The works of art, religion, and philosophy which comprise thislegacy are not supersededas scientific works are. Lib rianD. W. Langridge characterizesthe humanitiesas “cumulative:Plato exists todayalongsideKant, Whiteheadand A. J. Ayer . . .“ [5, p. 30].Our recent citation studies give a dramatic indication of the differencein the works consultedby scientists and humanists[6]. Althoughthestudies did not cover the same time periods, the results, 1 believe, willgenerally hold. Last year I published a list of the 300 science authorsmost cited bet ween 1961 and 1976 [7-111. The oldest person on the listwas born in 1899. We have just done a similar study based on 1977-78data for the 100 authors most cited in the arts and humanities journals.Homer, the oldest author, lived, it is believed, around the ninth centuryB.c. Fifteen of the authors lived before A.D. 1400; sixty-eightwere bornbefore 1900. If we extend this list to the top 300 authors, we find a slightincrease in the proportionof modern artists and scholars who appear.But of the top 300, approximately10 percent lived before A.D. 1400.Nearly 60 percent were born before 1900.This is not to say that the arts and humanitiesare static. An inheritance may always be reevaluated.Some works and historical periods mayseem uninterestingto scholars for a time. Then someone will come alongwith a new perspectiveor fact and the subject or period will be resurrected. These shifts of interest in the humanitiesare one of the scholarship’s most characteristicfeatures. Historian Eric Weil sees this phenomenonas a result of the humanists’ basic concern with the humansituation as it appears to them: “The surprising changes in the preference given at differenttimes to differenthistorical periods . . . are625
RETRIEVALIN ARTSANDHUMANITIESsufficientproof of a basic fact: we are always trying to understandourselves. We project our problems onto the men and situations of thepast and choose from the past so that the dialogue with its actors mayhelp us in our own predicament. . . In each resurrection everything ischanged because the eyes looking at the past are not the same” [12].Weil also notes that scholarly work in the humanities does not developout of previous work. He states: “The new in the humanities very often,not to say regularly, comes as a shock and a scandal, an effect norevolutionarydeed in the sciences seems to have provoked since sciencebecame ‘modern’; and even [he revolution which introducedthis modernity was not a scandal to the scientists of the time, but only for thosewho looked at its consequencesfor religion and for the place of man inthe universe—thatis, the humanists” [ 12]. So the humanitieschange,sometimesby “preference”or perceivedrelevance and sometimesbythesis and antithesis, as scholars react against the perspectives,attitudes,and theories of [he earlier generation.There are also “breakthroughs”in the humanitieswhich may revolutionizethinking on a subject. TheDead Sea scrolls are an example of this kind of discovery.These characteristicsaffect informationretrieval in the humanities.For one thing, humanities scholars are less compulsive about the literature than scientists are. This differencein attitude is a direct outgrowthof the difference in scientific research and humanistic scholarship. If youwere a scientist trying to discover the structure of DNA when Watsonand Crick published their article on the double helix, there was nothingyou could do but pick up your marbles and go home. The structure hadbeen discovered;nothing more need be said; and scientists moved onfrom there. But if you are a music scholar preparing a monographonBach and a book on the composercomes out, you are of course interested, but you do not burn your manuscript.You know that no one(including yourself) will ever be able to say the last word about Bach andhis music.Another characteristic of informationretrieval in the humanities is thepreeminenceof books over journals as informationsources. Also, thesesources do not become obsolete. Great scholarship and criticism endure.For example, Dr. Johnson’s lives of the English poets is still rewardingreading. But even bad scholarshipdoes not disappearentirely fromhumanists’ interest, As Northrop Frye put it, “In a sense, you can’t losein the humanities: if your book is any good, it’s a contributionto scholarship; if it’s no good, i(’s a document in the history of taste” [13]. Whilea physics library, pressed for space, might manage by keeping onlyjournals under five years old or by having a core collection of most-citedworks [ 14], this would be a ridiculous idea to the humanities librarian.Besides the scholarly literature, humanitiesscholars also wish to re626
44EUGENEGARFIELDtrieve works of art themselves (poems, photographsof paintings, musicalscores). These works may never have been published in books. Or theymay appear in books which are not readily available. Searches for thesedocumentscan be laborious and fruitless.Finally, the citation tradition in the humanities is not as strong as it isin the sciences. An art historian may not formally cite such works ashernuaor the Mona Lisa. A literary critic would not cite Shakespeareeverytime he mentions Hamfet. (Even so, Shakespeare’sworks are stillamong the most cited.) In some disciplines, such as philosophy,religion,classics, and history, schoIars are generally careful about citing theirsources. Yet many of these journalsuse archaic or arcane styles ofcitation. For example, some classics journals abbreviate authors’ names.Does Ar. stand for Aristotle or Aristophanes?To the classicist, I am surethe reference is clear. But not to our data entry staff. To clarify citations,our editors scan the articles and add the missing information.Thissignificantly increases the cost of processingthe humanitiesliterature.The differencesin the informationrequirementsof humanists andtiientistswould seem rather large. How is it, then, that an indexingsystem presumably designed for scientists, and exemplifiedby the ScienceCitation Index, was accepted by scholars in the arts and humanities?Frankly, we were not sure at first that it would be. But a survey oflibrarians and scholars in North America and Europe encouragedus toat least try an Arts W Humanities Cikrtion hdex@’.Arts &HuNnstiesCiwiorIZn&#(A&HCi)A citation index answers a fundamentalquestion not answered by othersystems, or by other query languages-asthey say in the online business.That question is simply: Where has this book or article been cited ordiscussed? The only traditional index that does this is a book reviewindex. And consideringthe vagaries of language worldwide,1 had toconclude,inevitably,that a citation index for the humanitieswouldbridge the linguistic harriers of traditional indexingschemes just as ithad in the sciences and the social sciences.So, in 1978 we brought out the first A&HCI as well as our first backyear covering 1977. Like our other citation indexes, they are composedof several sections which index the same literature in differentways.These first A&HC1’s cover over 950 journals from the fields of literature,hisart, architecture,archeology,music, religion, classics, hilosophy,tory, dance, folklore, film, TV, radio, linguisticsand philology,andtheater. The span of disciplinesis greater than any previous index627
RETRIEVALIN ARTSANDHUMANITIES45devoted to the arts and humanities.In 1979 we are covering over 1,000journals. This coverage will undoubtedlyincrease in future years.Although the arts and humanities support many journals, books arestill prime sources of information.So in 1979 we have begun to coverbooks, especially multi-authoredones. Approximately250 will be covered this year with steady increases planned for the years ahead. Most ofthese books will be collections of original scholarly papers. They will beindexed at the chapter level so that users can retrieve informationabouta single chapter relevant to their interests. Some single-authoredworks,such as collections of essays and bibliographies,will also be indexed.All substantive material from the publicationscovered is indexed inA&Hc1. We index not just scholarly articles, but also reviews of books,thealer, opera, music and dance performances,recordings,and artshows. We also index editorials, interviews, discussions,notes, letters,bibliographies,chronologies,notes, corrections,errata, original poetry,short stories, essays, plays, and book excerpts.13t-mkreviews are extremely numerous in the humanities journal literature. In 1978, of the 85,000 source items covered by A&HC1, ?38,000were book reviews. We follow the same conventionin handling bookIn&x@. Thereviews in ,4WHCI that we use in our Social Scienct.s Citation“title” of the review is, of course, the title of the book itself—includingthe author’s name. A “pseudo” citation for the book is also created forthe citation index so that the review will be located whether one searchesby the reviewer or by the author. Furthermorethe words of the tide ofthe book are indexed.Of special help to literary scholars is our policy of indexing poems,short stories, and other literary works which appear in the journals weco’ er. Locating recent or uncollectedwork has been time-consuminginthe past. With A&ffCf it should be noticeably easier.Since the Source Index (or author index) of A&HCI gives completebibliographicalinformationabout each item indexed,we ran into aunique problem in indexing the humanities literature which we had notencounteredin the sciences or social sciences. As in our science andsocial sciences indexes, we translate a]] article titles into English. However, many article titles contain the titles of works in another language;for example, Mann’s Mario und drr Zaubcr r. We could have changed thistitle to ,%farioand h ,Vfagirian, a literal translation which in fact is the titleconventionallyused in English. But many works are known by vastlydifferentnames in differentlanguages.I supposethe most famousexample is Proust’s A R mt mbrancc of Things Past, not exactly the literaltranslation of A la rmhrchdu tcmfn Perdu. If all such “free” translationswere so well-known,there would be no problem. But many works are628
EUGENEGARFIELDFOURCAOE D(F )8SOk#NlNG ELSE IMATISSE,HENRI)21(s):18-2sCIIAWAUWE mOnecwEnacJSOLICKA OMATIS4S M.W4S414447ewwS3MVfwMAN04!FIG. 1.-AWHCIOCCOAATION AUSoUrcc Index12R77Lwls xiv amolr amART CUL7UnEMATISSE KAPELLE WNCVmwNA7URE MOBTE AU CGOU?oLVmmle u MEacm4m61T!oN Nom TOAWSUSKMAsam JMQNA18PsRRuCW ST M Sl EM10t ILL ILLIILL ILL ILL ILL ILL ILL4847162entrynot so famous; some have never been translated into English. Instead oftranslating them, we leave titles of works of art that appear in articletitles in the language of the original article.The Source Index entry, shown in figure 1, points to another uniqueproblem in indexing the arts and humanities literature. In this example,after the title “SomethingElse” is the name, “Matisse, Henri,” in parentheses. This added entry for the name of the artist is a title enrichmentmade by an 1S1 subject specialist. 1n the .Science Citation ln&x, no titleenrichmentsare used. Titles of most scientific articles are highly descriptive of the contents. In the social sciences, there are a larger numberof nondescriptivetitles but not enough to warrant an effort to enrichtitles. However, the arts and humanities literature contains a significantnumber of nondescriptivetitles. Hence, we have specialists who readsuch articles and add the names of the persons, places, things, concepts,theories, etc., which are the subjects of the articles. In 1978, they enriched nearly 5,000 tides. When you subtract the book reviews, which aretreated under the standard policy 1 mentioned,from the total of 85,000items processed,you realize that fully 10 percent of these other itemswere title enriched. Tide enrichmentis a time-consumingand expensiveoperation,but it greatly increases the usefulnessof A&HCZ.The referencesof the article in figure 1 illustrate another uniqueaspect of our indexing. Several of the references are to Matisse paintingsfollowed by the abbreviationILL. This indicates that the paintings arereproduced(illustrated) in the article. The code was created to meet thespecial needs of art historians. They often need to find photographicreproductionsof art works not available in their own libraries. Thus, inthis example, you know that a photographof La Dattseu.te by Matisse isincluded in the article by Fourcade. We also found that music scholarshave similar problemshuntingdown music scores. For this reason,629
RETRIEVALIN ARTSANDHUMANITIES47whenever a complete score is reproducedin an article, we indicate itsappearancewith the code “MUS.”Now I am sure that there is some concern as to how a painting couldappear in the referencesof an article. Scholars do not usually citepaintings in footnotes or bibliographiesin the way they might cite scholarly books and articles. The arrow beside each painting title indicatesin anwhat we call an ‘*implicit” citation. When a work is mentionedanicle but not explicitly cited, this is an implicit citation. By extension, inaddition to articles or books, “implicit” citations can include paintings,musical compositions,novels, dance performances,etc., which are discussed in an article but are not formally, that is, explicitly cited. 1S1editors read articles and add these “implicit” citations to the references.This is no small job. In 1978, 536,000 citations were included in theA&HCl; 81,000 of them are implicit or pseudo citations. More than halfof these pseudo citations were of books, performances,and recordingswhich were the subjects of reviews. Nearly 18,000 were for illustrationsof art works. Only 100 were for reproductionsof musical scores. Therest were to a variety of works, discussed but not formally cited. Theimplicit citations are included in the lists of references which follow eachmain article entry in the Source Index. However, their main function isto make possible highly specific searches through the A&HC1 CitationIndex. If there is a long list of works which have discussed Matisse, it isuseful to refine the search and limit retrieval to those articles that discussthe specific work in question.The Chation Index permits scholars to make highly specific searches.Another example is relevant. Suppose papers which discuss I%casso’spainting, The Acrobat, were needed. Furthermore,the researcher prefersto find an article containinga reproductionof the painting. He wouldturn to the entry for Picasso in the Citation Index, shown in figure 2.Under his name is a list of his cited works, and below them briefdescriptions of the newer articles which cited them. The first cited workis The Acdaf,painted in 1923. The arrow indicates this to be an implicitcitation and ILL indicates that a reproductionof the painting is includedin an article in Artnas by J. Gruen. To get complete informationaboutthis article, the researcher would look up Gruen’s entry in the SourceIndex.All of this discussion does not deal with the primary function of theA&##Cf. The literature of the humanitiesincludes its own articles andkksapart from the classics themselves.For example, consider E. H. mbrnch’sbook on art, Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology ojPictwial Presentation. By locating this work in the Citation Index one canfind newer articles which cite it. These citing works provide criticism or630
EUGENEGARFIELDPICA SOP .m6A TttER#lLL lLVSmARmwANM UmmwowlmBLIND BEGGAR ILL lLW600KPLA TE APOLLINAIRILL l ART MAO80%%%%FORK ILL 1912MEMMNOES APOLLOARTfORLMUILVESiKEBOY LEADING )@R2ECARWWTE K ARTIN7BULLS HEAD ILL 1W2WWWMOR- S CLEVUVE8USTOF LLWANw-7 ILLm YSnxUm1S2FIG. 2.-4WHCIa8ssnmnnn0EEw7?n77. 1nnCitation Index entryexpansionsof Gombrich’s work. Thus, the Citation Index lets the researcher start with an older work and move forward in time to see howmore recent scholars have used and reacted to it.That we have to provide implicit citations for certain types of workssh&tld not give the impressionthat citation indexing cannot be as successful for the arts and humanitiesas it is for the sciences. A largemajority of the articles covered do provide explicit references.Implicitcitations were a headache we faced in adapting the citation indexingmethod to the humanitiesliterature. We can hope that, in the future,authors and editors in these journals will improve their citation consciousness just as they have in the sciences.Certain elements of the format of the Citation Index had to be redesigned for A&HCf. In our Science and Sot-id Sciences Citation ht&es,thecited works appear in chronologicalorder beneath each cited author.Most cited works are journal articles which, by and large, are publishedonce. To enter the Citation Index all you need to know is the author’sname and the year the article was published.But in the arts and humanities,books are the most frequentlycitedworks. Books may appear in many editions. If we used the chronologicalformat, the entries for a single work would be separated. This problemwas solved by arranging cited works in alphabeticalorder under thecited author’s name. This may seem like a simple change, but it requiredextensive reprogramming.The treatment of certain types of material also presentedproblems.For example,who should be the “cited author” for a film, theatricalperformance,or a TV program?We consider the director the citedauthor. In this way it is possible to find reviews and articles about GeorgeLucas’s movies in one place in the Citation Index. In the case of phonmgraph records and live musical performances,the performeror per631
RETRIEVALIN ARTSANDHUMANITIESforming group is the cited author. For orchestral and operatic recordings and live performances,the conductor is the cited author. For danceperformances,the choreographerand the dance company each appearas cited authors.The literature of religion also caused special cited-authorproblems.Scholars of religion need informationabout the specific book, chapter,and verse in the Bible. So we placed the term Bible, Koran, Mishnah,etc., in the cited-authorcategory. Each of the books, chapters, verses, orother subdivisionsare listed as separate cited works.Another cited-authorproblem was the citing of both the pen namesand the real names of authors. This problem is, of course, not new tocatalogers.In order to avoid scatter, we standardizereferencesto authors like Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain), Mary Anne Evans (GeorgeEliot), and C. L. Dodgson(Lewis Carroll). Other variants we muststandardize include citations to Virgil such as Vergil, P. Vergilius Mare,and Virgilio. To standardize these names we follow Webster’s BiographicalDictionary This process takes place both in pre- and posteditingof theindexes. Editors standardizeall names before keyboarding,but we alsodo a manual edit after printouts of the preliminary indexes are obtained.Titles of cited works are also standardizedmanually. Cited tides remainin the language in which they were cited. But even in English a work maybe cited two or more ways. For example, some scholars cite The AdvenHtuk&bewjFinn; others use just HuckLrbeqFinn. We unifyturesvariants under the best known version.The third section of the A&?HCl is the Perntuterm”Subject Index(PSI). This is a title word index to the source literature covered. Titleenhancementterms appear here, too, making articles with nondescriptive titles retrievable through this index. The PSI will be especially usefulto students and others who are embarking upon an entirely new area ofresearch and know of no older publicationsor works of art with whichthey may enter the Citation Index. To use the PSI, the researcher needonly know a word or words likely to appear in the title of an article orbook relevant to his interests. For instance, suppose he was interested inMarxism in France. He could look up Marxism in the PSI (or for thatmatter, France or French). Beneath the entry would be every significantword and enrichmentterm from tides which include Marxism. They areidentifiedby the name of the first author. For completeinformationabout these items, you would turn to the Source Index.The A&?HCl also includes an OrganizationalIndex. This section permits you to look up an organization— the Art Institute of Chicago, forexample—andlocate all items by authors affiliated with that museum.A@HCI is so new that its impact on arts and humanities scholarship isnot yet apparent. But we believe the index will have several good effects.of632
EUGENE50GARFIELDThe first benefit of A&HCl, mundane as it may be, will be greater ease insearching the literature. By simply indexing so many journals and booksfrom such a broad range of disciplines, we have created an index whichcan certainly be the single tool needed for many searches. The extraordinary amount of informationthe index gives the user will also cutsearch time. Language codes, identificationof book reviews, editorials,etc.; codes for reproductionsof paintings and scores; the list of references with each article in the Source Index—all these things help usersdecide if it is worthwhile to obtain copies of the articles retrieved. Thiswill certainly alleviate many frustrationsand disappointments.In fact,with A&HCl,some studentsmay lose their dread of the referencesection of the library.Second, we think that A&HCf will foster broader perspectivesin thehumanities.The insularity of arts and humanitiesdepartmentsis wellknown. E. H. Combnich, the eminent art historian, has stated, “The alertreader of any text must inevitably ask questions which will take him intolinguistics today [and] into history tomorrow. . . [Yet] a student of anysyllabus would probably be discouragedfrom doing ‘researchon anytopic that falls outside of it” [15, p. 7]. There seems to be a fear ofunknown disciplines iq the humanities,perhaps simply because they arescholar canunknown.As Gombnchsays, “An alert and industriousacquire the skills to investigatenearly any question which arouses hislines. Icuriosity*’ [15, p. 71. Yet many seem afraid to cross disciplinarylike to think that a literature scholar, for example, searching the A&HC1,will note that a literary work is also cited by religion, history, philosophy,and art journals. Looking up those articles may illuminate the work inquestion-andalso make the scholar less timid about pursuing an interest into other disciplines. A&ffCl will thus give access to new realms ofknowkdge.Most CitedAuthorsin the HumanitiesThird, A&HClwill give historians,sociologists,and other scholarsinsights into their concerns through our studies of most-citedauthorsand works, which I mentionedearlier. Table 1 gives a list of the 100most-cited autho”rs from the 1977-78 A&HC1. The authoraarearrangedin chronologicalorder. Their inclusion on the list was determinedby thenumber of articles which cited works by them. (Please note that this issomewhat different from ranking them by the number of stations theyreceived. One article may cite an author several times.) The most-citedauthor (Karl Marx) had 704 articies cite his work; the least itedwascited in 122 articles. The average number of citing articles was 210. The633
RETRIEVALIN ARTSAND51HUMANITIESTABLE 1A& HC1AUTHORS, 1977-78MOST-CITEDNo, ZS.484-40628820913321677434632043 74502091953144396674418791?sB.c.), playwrightPlato (427-347B.c.), philosopherB.c.), philosopherAristotle (384-322Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 B.c.), politician, philosopher,rhetoricianVergil (Publius Vergilius Mare) (70-19 D.c.), poetHorace (Quinuss Horace Flaccus) (65-8 B.C.), poetOvid (Publius Ovidius Nawo) (43 B.c.-A.D. 17), poetSeneca (Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger)politician, philosopher.5006244973091,2331,361228(ea. 9th cent. B.c.), poetand(4 B.c.-A.D. 65),and playwrightPliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Sccundus) (ea. 23-79), naturalistPlutarch (ea. 46- 120), biographer and philosopherAugustine of Hippo (354-430),theologian and philosopherAquinas, Thomas (ea. 1225–74), theologian and philosopherDante Alighicri ( 1
new index (and resulting data base) are seen as the promotion of interdiscipli-nary research, accessibility of bibliographic data for saiological and historical studies of humanities scholarship, and more objective methods for evaluating humanities journals. It is just fifteen years since I
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Le genou de Lucy. Odile Jacob. 1999. Coppens Y. Pré-textes. L’homme préhistorique en morceaux. Eds Odile Jacob. 2011. Costentin J., Delaveau P. Café, thé, chocolat, les bons effets sur le cerveau et pour le corps. Editions Odile Jacob. 2010. Crawford M., Marsh D. The driving force : food in human evolution and the future.
Le genou de Lucy. Odile Jacob. 1999. Coppens Y. Pré-textes. L’homme préhistorique en morceaux. Eds Odile Jacob. 2011. Costentin J., Delaveau P. Café, thé, chocolat, les bons effets sur le cerveau et pour le corps. Editions Odile Jacob. 2010. 3 Crawford M., Marsh D. The driving force : food in human evolution and the future.
