Forest Disturbance And Degradation In Western Himalayan .
Asian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.AJABOriginal ArticleForest disturbance and degradation in western Himalayan moist temperateforest of PakistanJaved Iqbal*Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, CzechRepublicDepartment of Forestry, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Sheringal, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, PakistanReceived:February 9, 2019Accepted:October 3, 2019Published:December 31, 2019AbstractThis research aims to investigate forest disturbances and the underlying factors drivingforest degradation in the past several decades in the western Himalaya, Pakistan. Theresults revealed four major disturbance sources (geological, climatic, biotic, andanthropogenic). Data (frequency of events) were recorded using point and fixed areamethods (0.1 ha). The analysis shows average frequency (0.045 or 27% of disturbance)through climatic sources (natural fire, wind, snow & floods, which shows the impact ofclimate change on these mountains; Landslides damaged large areas (11%–16 %)through a geological source. Humans also have a great impact on land clearing foragriculture and infrastructure (35%) from logging, shifting cultivation and counter fire.Most of the disturbances occurred on higher altitudes ( 2,800 m a.s.l.), whereas themid-range elevation (1,900–2,700 m a.s.l.) were only influenced by snow. Thelandslide was recorded on low elevation ( 1,900 m a.s.l.), but there are some landslideevents that were observed on a higher elevation. This study focused on the stability ofmountain forests for long-term planning. Anthropogenic activities need to be restrictedand more afforestation projects need to plan, that increase the forest-covered st-temperateclimate,SustainabilityHow to cite this:*Corresponding author email:javed.iqbal.silviculturist@gmail.comIqbal J, 2019. Forest disturbance and degradation in western Himalayan moisttemperate forest of Pakistan. Asian J. Agric. Biol. 7(4):538-547.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 .0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided theoriginal work is properly cited.Introductiondisturbances are often determined by topography, sitevariation and other ecological factors (Pickett andWhite, 1985). Ecological factors (biotic and abiotic)vary with altitude and aspect (Picó et al., 2008). Thestructural dynamics of the forest depend on naturaldisturbance (White, 1979). Structural dynamics andtopographic diversity in the mountain regions lead toecological disturbances in these forests; They arelandslides, landslips, rock-falls, fires, wind-throws,herbivore/grazing, snow damages, floods, andTemperate forest zone covers about one-fourth of theforest land of the world, most of these forests lie inmountainous regions (Frelich, 2002), and thus arehighly sensitive to natural disturbances (White, 1979).Historically, there are some disturbance events in themountainous regions because of the ecology of themountains (Rogers and Station, 1996; Siebert andBelsky, 2014). The scale and level of ecologicalAsian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.538
Javed Iqbalearthquakes (Barnes et al., 1997; Frelich, 2002). Thepresent study focuses on the western Himalayan moisttemperate forest of Pakistan among nine forestecological zones. The stand structure of westernHimalayan moist temperate forests of Pakistan ishighly significant for the diversity and sustainablemanagement, which influence the forest productivity(Abbasi et al., 2013; Ammer, 1996; Lindenmayer andFranklin, 1997). In this part of the world, themountainous disturbances are responsible for thediversity and characteristics of the forest community(Gao et al., 2014; Laginha Pinto Correia et al., 2017;Wilfahrt et al., 2016). Ecological disturbancesconstitute an important component of the mountainlandscape ecology as they affect the structure,function, and composition of mountain ecosystem(Barnes et al., 1997) and at the same time, influenceecological succession (Frelich, 2002; Yang et al.,2018). Like flora, the fauna is also influenced by suchecological disturbance which often results inmigration, intervention and introduction of differentspecies to the prone sites (Coyle et al., 2017; Raffa etal., 2008; Wardlaw et al., 2018) for establishment andcolonization (Alexandrino et al., 2016; Kwon, 2014)of the ecological niche. The management of theseforests also requires an in-depth knowledge of theecosystem changes and adaptations over a period oftime, for the assessment and modeling of forestresources (Al-Yemeni and Sher, 2010). Disturbanceintensities and frequencies of the events in themountainous regions affect the management andconservation of natural resources, the flora is lowsensitive towards ecological change as a comparisonto the fauna of the habitat (Raffa et al., 2008; Renneand Tracy, 2013).The productive and protective functions of themountainous forest ecosystem are severely degradedby different disturbance factors (Gunn et al., 2019).Energy and fuelwood consumption, which contributesto forest degradation, is often higher in themountainous regions compared to the settled areas(lowlands) (Sulaiman et al., 2017). Forestmanagement and anthropogenic activities alsoenhance soil transition and increase forest litter, whichprovides favorable ground to the degradation process(Zhu et al., 2019). The intensity of the forestdegradation process is linked to decision making andpolicy formulation from the government, landowners,and companies (Morales-Barquero et al., 2015).Unmanaged grazing system results in the tramplingand compaction effects (Sulieman, 2018) whichAsian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.deteriorate fragile pasture and grassland in themountains (Bormann et al., 2015; Mack et al., 2013).Recent climate change phenomena enhanced forestdegradation in mountain regions, temperate forestsand riverside forests (Ahmad et al., 2018; Gunn et al.,2019; Munawar et al., 2015).The presented study focusses on the western Himalayain Pakistan, which is the youngest and highlydiversified mountainous forest of the world in termsof species composition, stand structure, geology, andterrain (Abbasi et al., 2012). The study investigates thelevels of disturbance through relative frequency,types, and impact of disturbances along with thealtitude and is aimed to help forest managers to protectand conserve the mountainous forest.Material and MethodsForest of the regionLocalityAn entire moist temperate forest of Himalaya inPakistan was examined to identify the disturbanceevents. Coordinates of the region are 33.262143dd,35.829804dd, 72.128056dd, and 75.359444dd (South,North, West, and East Ends, respectively). Thealtitudinal variation is between 1,200 and 3,300 ma.s.l., elevation interval of 100 m were observed, thesealtitudinal zones area considered as transect for thedata comparison.Ecological range of studied areaEcological ranges vary with altitudinal variation in theregion. The study area is a pure temperate region ofthe Himalayan Mountains. Research site represents(Fig. 1) western Himalayan mountain range,surrounded by Karakoram and Hindukush mountainson northern and western side, whereas southern sidewith Pothohar Plateau and plains of Indus river(Gardelle et al., 2013; Kaila, 1981; Mahmood et al.,2011; Singh and Jain, 2002). On lower elevation,ecological zones of Subtropical Chir Pine Forest arefound with major Species of Pinus roxburghii Sargentand Quercus incana Roxb. On upper elevation, Subalpine pasture with scattered trees species Abiespindrow Royle. and other non-woody vegetation isfound. From Hindukush and Karakoram Mountainrange, vegetation is the same, only with the addition ofQuercus ilex L. and Pinus geradiana Wall.Natural vegetation coverVegetation cover varies on the lower elevation to539
Javed Iqbalhigher and from dry temperate to moist temperate.Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jackson, Cedrus deodaraRoxb., Taxus baccata L., Picea smithiana Wall.,Abies pindrow, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus dilatataRoyle, Viburnum nervosum D. Don, Indigoferaheterantha Wall., Quercus ilex L., Aesculus indicaWall., Prunus cornuta Wall., Acer caesium Wall.,Quercus incana, Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl.Gen.,Populus ciliata Wall., Pistacia integerrima J. L.Stewart, Parrotia persica (DC.) are major species thatare abundantly available in the region (Amjad et al.,2014; Champion et al., 1965; Lughmani, 1961).was set as a demarcated area for events records Figure1 (22 transect). Full inventory was conducted in all theforest circles in (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [Hazara ForestCircle, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Forest Department)and Punjab Forest Department (Rawalpindi NorthForest circle)] with an official record from the forestdepartments for the year. Data regarding fire, snowdamages (also verified during winter), wind damages,and disease were available from the forest department.In addition to these records, data were also recordedwith the help of local people who identified events inthe region, data along the roads, paths, trail, andvalleys are also recorded in detail. Transects were usedas a reference to analyze the data for any variation dueto altitude in the region.Data collection reliabilityDue to the high variation in the events, the data wererecorded in the available record from the ForestDepartment. Identification of snow damages and winddamages were verified with forest professional in thefield who had experience and knowledge in treedemarcation for harvesting, counter check also didduring winter to verify the data for snow damages.Fieldworks for damages considerations, sources,scales, citationsThe data were collected during summer from June toAugust due to limited access snow damage data wererecorded during winter. Materials for the data werebased on the management plan (working plan) of theforest for historical events record, Global PositioningSystem (GPS) to record coordinates and altitudes, datarecord Performa and measuring tape were used torecord point data information, evaluation proforma(Annex-I) were used for detail record, plotdemarcation (area were classified into differentelevation zones with 100 m interval started from 1,200to 3,300 m) (Charan et al., 2012; Khattak, 1964;Yusuf, 1955). For the measurement of gradient/slope,vertex/Suunto clinometer were used (Prodan, 1968;Sweden, 2007). Due to species composition, aspect,terrain, and accessibility, the sampling size andintensity were highly influenced (Pretzsch, 2009), toavoid these problems, the area was categorized intodifferent elevation as mentioned before (No. ofaltitudinal transects were 22), and every possibledisturbance was recorded in the study area for detailstudies.Figure-1: Study area map (created in ArcGIS 10.6Academic version).Chart-1: Forest disturbance sources layout.Data collection procedureAnalytical plot selection and establishingTransect of 100 m interval from 1,200 to 3,300 m a.s.lAsian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.540
Javed IqbalAnnex-I. (Data collection performa).PlotWater/EventCoordinateCoordinate XAltitude Veg;Type SlopeIntensity Source History Season RemarksYMoistureTypeNo.12345678910DescriptionPlot No.Give the number to the plots for proper recognitionCoordinate XCoordinates were recorded with GPS in Metrics systemCoordinate YCoordinates were recorded with GPS in Metrics systemAltitudeElevation was recorded from above sea Level in MeterVeg; TypeVegetation types (Mixed, Conifers, Broadleaves, Mature, Young stand, regeneration or bare-land)SlopeThe slope was recorded with Sunnto or Vertex in %Water/MoistureCategorized as near the water source, stream, moist area with springs or marshy areaEvent TypeFire, snow, wind, landslide, rockfall, landslip, earthquake, floodIntensitySourceHistorySeasonRemarksthe altitudinal variation. The disturbance alsorepresents through percentage from the analysis. Thedata were analyzed and graphically representedthrough SigmaPlot, PAST3.2.1, RStudio, andMSExcel.Statistical analysisThe data were obtained from 22 transects along thealtitudinal gradient from 1,200 to 3,300 m asl.Frequencies of events were recorded within thetransects line for statistical analysis.The data were tested as the null hypothesis (H0) statingthat “there is no difference between the disturbanceevents along with the altitudinal variation,” whereasthe alternative hypothesis (H1) stated that “there is adifference between disturbance events along with thealtitudinal variation.” Relative frequencies werecalculated as follows:Relative frequency Results and DiscussionMountain forests are very fragile and sensitive tonatural disturbances due to the topography, flammablematerial, situation, and location of the forest stand.The sources are divided into climatic, Geo, biotic, andAnthropogenic (Chart 1), which are highly active inthe study area since the last two decades. Due to theproductive function of the moist temperate forest,Forest disturbance is highly sensitive to managementactivities, climate change, and anthropogenicactivities. Intensity or severities of disturbance wereclassified according to the relative frequency betweenthe minimum and maximum (0–0.1635) on a differentelevation in the study area. The univariate statisticsummary is also attached (Annex-II). Data wereanalyzed and classified as in the Table 1.𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛The non-linear regression was fitted to the data and thevariance of the data were calculated by analysis ofvariance (ANOVA). For individual events, arithmeticmeans (𝜇) were calculated. Correlation among theevents was also calculated, univariate statisticalanalysis was also made through the PAleontologicalSTatistics (PAST). The statistical analysis finds thedifference between the disturbance events along withAsian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.541
Javed Iqbaldue to natural lightning/thunders and availability offlammable material with species composition, such asPinus roxberghii, whereas in the mid-range elevation,(2,000–2,700m) fire is not very common (6.38%) dueto high moist condition, the complexity of speciescomposition, and low flammable material amount(Fig. 2).Table-1: General event summary description(Source: Field Data).Major vg.(RF)RFrequencyNatural Fire .08490.04545Insect 045445Shifting0–0.14140.04545CultivationCounter Fire 0–0.09010.0454680.0315–0.0454450.0686Source typeClimatic sourcesNatural vegetation in the mountains region is highlyresistant to climatic disturbances, such as: fire, wind,and snow damages, due to the adaptability, but theyare also highly sensitive in case of uncertainty andintensity of events (Bartels et al., 2016; Yu et al.,2016).Figure-2. Low snow damages were recorded on lowelevation as compared to mid and high altitude.Natural fire is low on mid altitude compared to lowand high altitude. Wind damages are almost samein region.Wind disturbanceIt affects the stand structure, enhance fire intensity,and composition of the stand on a very large scale infragile mountain regions (Quine and Gardiner, 2007).The data showed that altitude does not a matter forwind disturbance, as the patches which were recordedare influenced by the terrain (ridges, mound, or peaks)and soil water; (31.32%, 34.93%, and 33.73% Lower,mid, and high altitude, respectively).Natural fireThese events are not so common in moist temperateforests. Fire is the main contributor to ecologicalstability in the mountain region but is extremelydangerous with intensity and geographical situation.Animals, Rockfall, and high temperature igniteflammable material, which is the main source of firein these regions. The results show that there are highthreats in the lower as well as the upper elevations ofmountainous forests (38.29% and 55.31%). Lowerelevation or transition zone are affected due to hightemperature and availability of flammable material,i.e., Pinus roxberghii, and grasses. The pre-upperregions are also threatened by lightning and lowdensity of the stand, but these regions are less affectedby such disturbance as compared to the lowlandforests. The data show that most of the fire eventsoccur on a high elevation 2,800–3,300 m (55.31%) oron a low elevation from 1,200 to 1,900 m (38.29%)Asian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.Snow damagesHigh numbers of snow damages were recorded onmid-level altitude (48.59%) because of standcompetition, diameter, height ratio, and also due to thegradient which increases the velocity, whereas on lowand high elevations (18.69% and 32.71%), there is lesscompetition for growth, gentle gradient, and normaldistribution of diameter height ratio.542
Javed IqbalAnnex-II: Statistical summary.NMinMaxSumMeanStd. errorVarianceStand. devMedian25 percentile75 percentileSkewnessKurtosisGeom. MeanCoeff. 460.0273110.0490.017150.07105 0.03636 02470.0497010.021300.08510.780752 056780.0007090.0266340.05610.028050.0654 1.04327 0.0009970.0315750.056600.068375 0.52991 .0053960.000640.0253070.03660.02440.064050.718163 9670.0020570.0453560.030300.075750.813797 0.47834099.79403RFACF RFTDE222200.03150.09010.06861.00030.99980.045468 0.0454450.006643 0.0021650.000971 0.0001030.031158 0.0101550.05410.04330.015750.037650.07210.05455 0.30869 0.594811 1.41918 0.3488200.04440668.52749 22.34624Statistical summary of the data regarding Disturbance RF Relative Frequency, GLS Geo-source Landslide,GRF Geo-source Rockfall, CNF Climatic-source Natural Fire, CWD Climatic-source Wind Damages, CSD Climatic-source Snow Damages, BG Biotic-source Grazing, BID Biotic-source Insect/Disease, AL Anthropogenic-source Logging, ALCSC Anthropogenic-source Land Clearing/Shifting Cultivation, ACF Anthropogenic-source Counter Fire, TDE Total Disturbance Events.barren areas with a steep slope, and also on highelevations, altitudinal variation doesn't influencerockfall events showed in Figure 3. (Low 43.75%, mid50%, and high 6.25%)FloodsFloods are one of the common natural disasters in themountainous region, which enhances the landslides,erosion, and cutting of river banks. The floods damagethe river banks where the sites are sensitive to erosion,landslides, and cutting. After-effects of the floods havea good impact in lowlands or on the river bed toprovide a favorable condition for the successionprocess. There is no such quantitative data wererecorded for floods due to limited time and resources.Geo-sourcesHimalayan mountains are the youngest mountainousrange of the world (Shah and Moon, 2004), whichmake them hotspot for different geological activitiesas follows:Figure-3: Only two type of Disturbance were foundduring data collection in Geo-Source. The data(relative frequency) show low events on higheraltitude that is more than 2,700 m, as compared tomid and lowLandslideLandslide is very common in the HimalayanMountains due to the fragile ecosystem and lessstabilized geological structure. Low landslides werefound on a high elevation (6.86%) due to the stablegeological formation and loess soil depth. Maximumlandslides were recorded in low and mid-elevation(42.15% and 50.98%) due to steepness, moistureavailability, less developed soil, and groundinstability.AvalanchesAvalanches are not so common in the mountains rangeof the research. But still, there are numbers of evidencewere found in the valleys which identified the eventsand damages from avalanches. No such data werecollected due to limited time and resources.EarthquakeEarthquake damages the forest land and also certaingeo-structures in the mountain. Most of the earthquakedisturbances enhanced other disturbance processes,such as the rockfall, landslip, and landslide.RockfallRockfall is dangerous and cause a high level ofcasualties of human life and animals and also damagethe forest stand. Rockfall events were recorded onAsian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.543
Javed IqbalEarthquake 2005 was the massive disaster in SouthAsia, damaged thousands of hectors of forest land.Those destabilized areas need to re-vegetated, theearthquake also contributes to the disturbance.High Logging activities found on low altitude(56.73%), high altitude also contributes 26.92%.Land clearing/shifting cultivationIt is very common and clearly visible, locals clear theforest land for agriculture or pastoral activities. Forestsland clearing are prominent on the high (28.28%) andlow (68.68%) elevation due to access to the residentialarea or close to the sub-alpine pasture. The onlydisturbance which is dangerous for the forest standscover and protection of valuable species.Biotic sourcesLife plays a vital role in changing the ecologicalstructure. Mountain forests are heavily influenced bybiotic factors.GrazingThis factor has a high importance in mountainousforests with high floristic composition. These animalsalso play an important role in land improvement andsoil degradation. Disturbance due to animals’movement and heavy grazing provides ground to thenew plants but also destroys the growth of plantspecies. Disturbance due to grazing activities in themountain is very high both on low (42.45%) and high(43.39%) elevation, because of nomadic and localgraziers. Mid-range elevation covers about 14.15% ofthe grazing disturbance.Counter fire/human activitiesThey are the beneficial cultural operation for theregeneration as well as for the harvesting of fodder cropfor livestock on a lower elevation (48.64%). Suchdisturbances are highly productive for forest standcover and composition. High Altitude is also affectedby the counter fire 36.03% but the area of disturbanceis less than 100 sq.m.Insects and diseaseThey enhanced the disturbance in a diverse floristiccondition in a mountainous forest. Insect and diseasedamages were affected by climatic change in recentyears. Results showed that there is a high influence ofinsect and disease damage on the mid-elevation(57.31%), due to old growth, lighting/fire (HighAltitude 23.17%), snow and wind damages providefavorable habitat, whereas damaged trees act as host tothe insects which caused diseases.Figure-4: Insect- and Disease-infected trees werefound throughout the region, high in the upper midrange of altitude. Grazing activities were only foundon low and high altitude range.Anthropogenic factorsHumans utilized the forests from early days of life, butfrom last few decades, they managed these forests on asustainable basis, for maximum utilization of naturalresources. From the past few centuries, industrializationand structural development have destroyed these forestresources. Deforestation of the forest also contribute tothe disturbance phenomena; such events are: loggingoperation, land clearing for agriculture, or other usesand fire activities that burn the grasses for grazingpurposes (McGovern et al., 2011).LoggingLogging operations are key to maximizing theproduction of forest stand and replacing the forest withnew plants. Data shows that there is more than 33%disturbance due to logging activities (legal or illegal).Asian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.Figure-5. Human activities are very active inregion, whereas the high activities on lower altitudeand also on the high altitude.544
Javed IqbalConclusionWestern Himalayan moist temperate forests have greatimportance; social, scientifically, and economically.There is a need for detailed studies regardingecological disturbance and the development of aproductive model for the stability and improvement ofthese forest resources. This study provides baselineinformation for advanced research by using geoinformatics, ecological, social, and economic models.From the results, it's clear that these forests are still inbetter condition, but if those events regularly occurand found, may lead to the deterioration anddegradation of these diverse mountain forests. Dataanalysis was focused on the stability of mountainforests for long-term planning. Anthropogenicactivities need to be restricted and increaseafforestation activities to increase the forest-coveredarea.Figure-6: Equation: Polynomial, Quadratic f y0 a*x b*x 2. Low impact of disturbance on midrange altitude due to less accessible and expose.Normality test and significanceAcknowledgmentThe author would like to thank the Employees ofKhyber Pakhtunkhwa Forest Department, PunjabForest Department, and Azad Jammu & KashmirForest Department for support during data collection.Disclaimer: NoneConflict of Interest: NoneSource of Funding: None.Figure-7: Graphical representation show lowoccurrence of Rockfall Natural Fire compare to therest of disturbance event.ReferencesAbbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmad M and Zafar M, 2012.Medicinal plant biodiversity of lesser HimalayasPakistan. Springer, New York, Dordrecht,Heidelberg, London.Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Khan N and Shah MH, 2013.Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally importantwild edible fruits species used by tribalcommunities of Lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. JEthnopharmacol. 148: 528–36.Ahmad A, Liu QIJ, Nizami SM, Mannan A and SaeedS, 2018. Carbon emission from deforestation,forest degradation and wood harvest in thetemperate region of Hindukush Himalaya, Pakistanbetween 1994 and 2016. Land Use Policy. 78: 781–90.Figure-8: Correlation among the events, wherecrossed show p 0.05 significance level.Asian J Agric & Biol. 2019;7(4):538-547.545
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Dec 07, 2019 · Temperate forest zone covers about one-fourth of the forest land of the world, most of these forests lie in mountainous regions (Frelich, 2002), and thus are highly sensitive to natural disturbances (White, 1979). . Like flora, the fauna is also influenced by such ecological disturbance which often results in migration, intervention and .
(A) boreal forest º temperate forest º tropical rain forest º tundra (B) boreal forest º temperate forest º tundra º tropical rain forest (C) tundra º boreal forest º temperate forest º tropical rain forest (D) tundra º boreal forest º tropical rain forest º temperate forest 22. Based on the
Chapter 1 describes the role of a visual guide within the context of soil risk ratings and soil-quality monitoring, and evaluates the effects of soil disturbance. Chapter 2 defines and describes the visual attributes that determine a soil-disturbance class. Chapters 3 through 6 describe each disturbance class, its criteria, and where it may occur.
D. Mixed Evergreen/Deciduous Forest 38 1. Salt Dome Hardwood Forest * 38 2. Coastal Live Oak-Hackberry Forest * 39 3. Barrier Island Live Oak Forest * 39 4. Shortleaf Pine/Oak-Hickory Forest * 39 5. Mixed Hardwood-Loblolly Forest * 40 7. Slash Pine/Post Oak Forest * 40 8. Live Oak-Pine-Magnolia Forest * 40 9. Spruce Pine-Hardwood Flatwood * 41
deforestation and forest degradation that occurred in the country. From 90% forest cover in the 1900s, it went down to 70% by the end of the 19th century (Lasco et al. 2001; Garrity et al. 1993; Liu et al. 1993). By the year 2015, only 23% (7 Mha) of the country is covered with forest, which is broken down into closed forest (2 Mha),
practical control strategy that is Active Disturbance Rejection Control (ADRC) [10-14] to the EPAS system. The controller treats the discrepancy between the real EPAS system and its mathematical model as the generalized disturbance and actively estimates and rejects in real time, the disturbance
ON ACTIVE DISTURBANCE REJECTION CONTROL: STABILITY ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONS IN DISTURBANCE DECOUPLING CONTROL QING ZHENG ABSTRACT One main contribution of this dissertation is to analyze the stability char-acteristics of extended state observer (ESO) and active disturbance rejection control (ADRC).
e recently developed active disturbance rejection con-trol (ADRC) is an e cient nonlinear digital control strategy which regards the unmodeled part and external disturbance as overall disturbance of the controlled system [ ] . e ADRC mainly consists of a tracking di erentiator (TD), an extended state observer (ESO), and a nonlinear state error
English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects ISBN 978-0-8011-17 40-4 . ISBN 978-0-8011-1740-4. Bar code to be printed here. California Common Core State Standards. English Language Arts & Literacy in . History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects. Adopted by the. California State Board of Education . August 2010 and modified March 2013 .
