UNIT-I Biomolecules
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaUNIT-IBiomoleculesDefinitionBiomolecules are molecules that occur naturally in living organisms.Biomolecules include macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids andnucleic acids. It also includes small molecules like primary and secondarymetabolites and natural products. Biomolecules consists mainly of carbon andhydrogen with nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus. Biomolecules arevery large molecules of many atoms, which are covalently bound together.Classification of BiomoleculesThere are four major classes of v.Nucleic acids1. Carbohydrates- Carbohydrates are good source of energy. Carbohydrates (polysaccharides)are long chains of sugars.Monosaccharides are simple sugars that are composed of 3-7 carbon atoms.- They have a free aldehyde or ketone group, which acts as reducing agentsand are known as reducing sugars. Disaccharides are made of twomonosaccharides. The bonds shared between two monosaccharides areP age 1ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Guptathe glycosidic bonds.- Monosaccharides and disaccharides are sweet, crystalline and watersoluble substances. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides.They are un-sweet and complex carbohydrates. They are insoluble inwater and are not in crystalline form.- Example: glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, starch, cellulose etc.2. Lipids- Lipids are composed of long hydrocarbon chains. Lipid molecules hold alarge amount of energy and are energy storage molecules. Lipids aregenerally esters of fatty acids and are building blocks of biologicalmembranes.- Most of the lipids have a polar head and non-polar tail. Fatty acids can beunsaturated and saturated fatty acids.- Lipids present in biological membranes are of three classes based on thetype of hydrophilic head present: Glycolipids are lipids whose head contains oligosaccharides with 1-15saccharide residues. Phospholipids contain a positively charged head which are linked tothe negatively charged phosphate groups. Sterols, whose head contain a steroid ring. Example steroid.- Example of lipids: oils, fats, phospholipids, glycolipids, etc.3. Nucleic AcidsP age 2ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta- Nucleic acids are organic compounds with heterocyclic rings. Nucleicacids are made of polymer of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist ofnitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate group. A nucleoside ismade of nitrogenous base attached to a pentose sugar. The nitrogenousbases are adenine, guanine, thyamine, cytosine and uracil. Polymerizednucleotides form DNA and RNA which are genetic material.4. Proteins- Proteins are heteropolymers of stings of amino acids. Amino acids arejoined together by the peptide bond which is formed in between thecarboxyl group and amino group of successive amino acids. Proteins areformed from 20 different amino acids, depending on the number of aminoacids and the sequence of amino acids.- There are four levels of protein structure:(i)Primary structure of Protein - Here protein exist as long chain ofamino acids arranged in a particular sequence. They are non-functionalproteins.(ii)Secondary structure of protein - The long chain of proteins are foldedand arranged in a helix shape, where the amino acids interact by theformation of hydrogen bonds. This structure is called the pleated sheet.Example: silk fibres.(iii)Tertiary structure of protein - Long polypeptide chains become morestabilizes by folding and coiling, by the formation of ionic orhydrophobic bonds or disulphide bridges, these results in the tertiarystructure of protein.(iv)Quaternary structure of protein - When a protein is an assembly ofmore than one polypeptide or subunits of its own, this is said to be theP age 3ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Guptaquaternary structure of protein. Example: Haemoglobin, insulin.Functions of Biomolecules- Carbohydrates provide the body with source of fuel and energy, it aids inproper functioning of our brain, heart and nervous, digestive and immunesystem. Deficiency of carbohydrates in the diet causes fatigue, poormental function.- Each protein in the body has specific functions, some proteins providestructural support, help in body movement, and also defense againstgerms and infections. Proteins can be antibodies, hormonal, enzymes andcontractile proteins.- Lipids, the primary purpose of lipids in body are energy storage.Structural membranes are composed of lipids which form a barrier andcontrols flow of material in and out of the cell. Lipid hormones, likesterols, help in mediating communication between cells.- Nucleic Acids are the DNA and RNA; they carry genetic information inthe cell. They also help in synthesis of proteins, through the process oftranslation and transcription.CarbohydrateDefinition:Carbohydrates are products of plants and are a part of an extremely large groupof naturally occurring organic compounds. Cane sugar, glucose, starch and soon are a few examples of carbohydrates.P age 4ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaThe general formula for carbohydrates is Cy(H2O)z.Carbohydrates are generally hydrates of carbon, which is where the name wasderived. So, carbohydrates on hydrolysis produce polyhydroxy aldehydes orpolyhydroxy ketones.Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides, the word saccharide comes fromGreek word sakkron which means sugar.Carbohydrates are good source of energy.Classification of Carbohydrates(A) On the basis of Hydrolysis(i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that can be hydrolyzed only once tobreak down into simpler units of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is calledmonosaccharide. These include glucose, mannose, etc.(ii) Oligosaccharides: Sugars that on hydrolysis produce two or nine moleculesof monosaccharides are called oligosaccharides. These are further classified asdi-, tri- or tetrasaccharides, etc.(a) Disaccharides: These are sugars that produce two molecules of thesame or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Examples are sucrose,maltose, and lactose. An example of disaccharides is sucrose, maltose :C12H22O11.P age 5ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta(b) Trisaccharides: Sugars that yield three molecules of the same ordifferent monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called trisaccharides. An exampleof trisaccharides is Raffinose: C18H32O16(iii) Polysaccharides: On hydrolysis, polysaccharides yield a large number ofmonosaccharides units. An example of a polysaccharide is starch, glycogen,Dextrin, Cellulose etc.- In general monosaccharides and oligosaccharides are crystalline solids,soluble in water and sweet to taste, they are collectively known as sugars, thepolysaccharides on the other hand are amorphous, insoluble in water andtasteless, they are called non-sugars.(B) On the basis of Physical Characteristics(i) Sugar: Characteristics of sugars are crystalline substances, taste sweet andreadily water soluble. Because of their fixed molecular weight, sugars havesharp melting points. A few examples of sugars are glucose, fructose, sucrose,lactose, etc.(ii) Non-Sugars: Amorphous, Tasteless, water-insoluble substances withvariable melting points e.g., Starch.P age 6ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta(C) On basis of test with reagents (like Benedict’s solution, Tollen’s reagentand Fehling’s solution):(i) Reducing Sugars:These have a free aldehyde (-CHO) or ketone group.These have the ability to reduce the cupric ions (Cu2 ; blue) in Fehling’s orBenedict’s Solution to cuprous ions (Cu ; reddish) that separates out as cuprousoxide (Cu2O) from the solution.Examples include maltose, lactose, melibiose, gentiobiose, cellobiose,mannotriose.(ii) Non-reducing sugars: A free aldehyde or ketonic group is absent. No cuprous oxide (Cu2O) producing chemical reaction takes place. Examples are sucrose, trehalose, raffinose, gentianose, melezitose.Difference between monosaccharaides, oligosaccharides & PolysaccharidesCharacterMonosaccharaides OligosaccharidePolysaccharidessNo. of sugar12-9More than 9AbsentPresentPresentLowModerateHighSweetMinimally sweetNo tastemoleculesGlycoside bondMolecular WeightTasteP age 7ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar lwaysMay or may notAlways nonreducing sugarbereducing sugarExampleGlucose, fructose,Sucrose, Maltose Starch, Glycogen,GalactoseDextrin, CelluloseBiological Role of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are chief energy source, in many animals; they are instantsource of energy. Glucose is broken down by glycolysis/ kreb's cycle to yieldATP. Glucose is the source of storage of energy. It is stored as glycogen in animalsand starch in plants. Stored carbohydrates act as energy source instead of proteins. Carbohydrates are intermediates in biosynthesis of fats and proteins. Carbohydrates aid in regulation of nerve tissue and are the energy source forbrain. Carbohydrates get associated with lipids and proteins to form surfaceantigens, receptor molecules, vitamins and antibiotics. They form structural and protective components, like in cell wall of plantsand microorganisms. In animals they are important constituent of connective tissues. They participate in biological transport, cell-cell communication andactivation of growth factors. Carbohydrates those are rich in fibre content help to prevent constipation. Also they help in modulation of immune system.P age 8ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaTest for CarbohydratesProperties of Carbohydrates- General properties of carbohydratesCarbohydrates act as energy reserves, also stores fuels, and metabolicintermediates. Ribose and deoxyribose sugars forms the structural frame of thegenetic material, RNA and DNA. Polysaccharides like cellulose are the structural elements in the cellwalls of bacteria and plants. Carbohydrates are linked to proteins and lipids that play importantroles in cell interactions. Carbohydrates are organic compounds; they are aldehydes or ketonesP age 9ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Guptawith many hydroxyl groups.- Physical Properties of Carbohydrates Steroisomerism - Compound shaving same structural formulabut theydifferin spatial configuration. Example: Glucose hastwo isomers with respect to penultimate carbon atom. They are Dglucose and L-glucose. Optical Activity - It is the rotation of plane polarized light forming ( )glucose and (-) glucose. Diastereo isomeers - It the configurational changes with regard toC2, C3, or C4 in glucose. Example: Mannose, galactose. Annomerism - It is the spatial configuration with respect to the firstcarbon atom in aldoses and second carbon atom in ketoses.- Chemical Properties of Carbohydrates Ozazone formation with phenylhydrazine. Benedicts test. Oxidation Reduction to alcoholsStructure of Carbohydrates- There are three types of structural representations of carbohydrates:(i)Open chain structure.(ii)Hemi-acetal structure.(iii)Haworth structure.P a g e 10ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaFunctions of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are chief energy source, in many animals; they are instantsource of energy. Glucose is broken down by glycolysis/ kreb's cycle to yieldATP. Glucose is the source of storage of energy. It is stored as glycogen inanimals and starch in plants. Stored carbohydrates act as energy source instead of proteins. Carbohydrates are intermediates in biosynthesis of fats and proteins. Carbohydrates aid in regulation of nerve tissue and are the energy sourcefor brain. Carbohydrates get associated with lipids and proteins to form surfaceantigens, receptor molecules, vitamins and antibiotics. They form structural and protective components, like in cell wall of plantsP a g e 11ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Guptaand microorganisms. In animals they are important constituent of connective tissues. They participate in biological transport, cell-cell communication andactivation of growth factors. Carbohydrates those are rich in fibre content help to prevent constipation. Also they help in modulation of immune system.Example of Carbohydrates-Monosaccharides - Glucose, galactose, glycerose, erythrose, ribose,ribulose, fructose.-Oligosaccharides - Maltose, lactose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose.-Polysaccharides - Starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin, inulin, hyaluonicacid.Glucose:Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is themost abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose ismainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water andcarbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight, wheremake cellulose in cellwalls,whichistheit is used tomostabundantcarbohydrate. In energy metabolism, glucose is the most important source ofenergy in all organisms. Glucose for metabolism is partially stored asa polymer,in plantsmainly as starch and amylopectin andin animalsas glycogen. Glucose circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar. TheP a g e 12ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Guptanaturally occurring form of glucose is D-glucose, while L-glucose is producedsynthetically in comparatively small amounts and is of lesser importance.Preparation:(a) From sucrose (cane sugar): Boiling sucrose with diluted HCl or H2SO4 inalcoholic solution produces glucose and fructose in equal proportions.(b) From starch: Industrially, glucose is manufactured by the hydrolysis ofstarch by boiling it with dil. H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure.Structures of GlucoseGlucose was assigned open chained structure on the basis of the followingevidence. Glucose has one aldehyde group, one primary (—CH2OH) group andfour secondary (—CHOH) hydroxyl groups, and gives the following reactions:(a) Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride forms a pentaacetate, provingthe presence of five hydroxyl groups in glucose.(b) Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form monoxime and adds up amolecule of hydrogen cyanide to form a cyanohydrin.P a g e 13ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaThe above reactions validate the occurrence of a carbonyl group in glucose.(c) On prolonged heating with HI, glucose forms n-hexane, indicating that allthe six carbon atoms in glucose are linked linearly.(d) Reaction with Bromine water.Cyclic Structures of GlucoseThe open chain structure of glucose could not explain the following facts : –Despite having the aldehyde group, it does not give the 2,4-DNP test, Schiff ‘stest and it does not form the hydrogen sulphite addition product with NaHSO 3.The pentaacetate of it does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absenceof free — CHO group in glucose pentaacetate. Glucose exists in two differentcrystalline forms: α-form (obtained by crystallization from conc. solution ofglucose at 303 K) and β-form (obtained by crystallization from hot andsaturated aq. solution at 371 K).P a g e 14ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Guptaα and β glucose have different configuration at anomeric (C-1) carbon atom,hence are called anomers and the C-1 carbon atom is called anomeric carbon(glycosidic carbon). The six-membered cyclic structure of glucose is called thepyranose structure.FructoseIt is a ketohexose as it contains six C- atoms and ketonic group.On the basis ofits reactions, it was found to contain a ketonic functional group at C-2 atom andsix carbon atoms in the straight chain as in the case of glucose. It belongs to Dseries and is a laevorotatory compound. It is appropriately written as D-(-)fructose.Fructose also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained by the addition of OH at C-5 to the ( C 0) group. The ring, thus formed is a five-membered ringand is named as furanose.P a g e 15ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaDisaccharidesMaltose:(a) Preparation: Fractional hydrolysis of starch by enzyme diastase.(b) Units: Two units of α-D glucose.(c) Reducing sugar(d) Linkage: α glycosidic linkage between C1 and C4 carbon atoms.P a g e 16ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaSucrose:(a) Preparation: Prepared from sugarcane and beetroot(b) Units: α-D glucose and α-D fructose.(c) Non-reducing sugar(d) Linkage: α glycosidic linkage with reference to glucose and β glycosidiclinkage to fructose, both linked at C1 carbon.Lactose:(a) Preparation: Found in milk.(b) Units: β-D glucose and β-D galactose.(c) Reducing sugar.(d) Linkage: β glycosidic linkage.P a g e 17ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaThe levo rotation of fructose (–92.4 ) is more than the rotation of glucose( 52.5º), so the mixture is laevorotatory. Sucrose hydrolysis brings about achange in the sign of rotation, from dextro ( ) to laevo (–) and the product iscalled invert sugar.Polysaccharides(a) Starch: It is the main storage polysaccharide of plants having the generalformula (C8H16O5)n. The main source is maize, wheat, barley, rice, and potatoes.It is a polymer of α-glucose and consists of two components – Amylose andAmylopectin. Amylose is made up of a long, unbranched chain of α-D-( )glucose linkage. Amylopectin is a branched chain polymer of α-D-glucoseunits, in which chain is formed by C1–C6 glycosidic linkage whereas branchingoccurs by C1–C6 glycosidic linkage.(b) Cellulose It occurs exclusively in plants and is the main constituent of thecell wall of a plant cell. It is a linear polymer of β-D glucose in which glucoseunits are linked together by C1–C4 glycosidic linkage. It is a non-reducing sugar.P a g e 18ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta(c) GlycogenIt is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectinand is rather more highly branched. It is found in the liver, muscles, and brain.Glycogen breaks down to glucose by the action of enzymes when needed by thebody. It is also found in yeast and fungi.P a g e 19ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar GuptaLipids- Lipids are a heterogeneous group of water-insoluble (hydrophobic) organicmolecules that can be extracted from tissues by nonpolar solvents, becauseof their insolubility in aqueous solutions, body lipids are generally foundcompartmentalized, as in the case of membrane-associated lipids ordroplets of triacylglycerol in adipocytes, or transported in plasma inassociation with protein, as in lipoprotein particles or on albumin.- Lipids are a major source of energy for the body, and they provide thehydrophobic barrier.- Lipids serve additional functions in the body, for example, some fat-solublevitamins have regulatory or coenzyme functions, and the prostaglandinsand steroid hormones play major roles in the control of the body'shomeostasis.General characters of lipids- Lipids are relatively insoluble in water.- They are soluble in non-polar solvents, like ether, chloroform, andmethanol.- Lipids have high energy content and are metabolized to release calories.- Lipids also act as electrical insulators, they insulate nerve axons.- Fats contain saturated fatty acids; they are solid at room temperatures.Example, animal fats.- Plant fats are unsaturated and are liquid at room temperatures.- Pure fats are colorless, they have extremely bland taste.- The fats are sparingly soluble in water and hence are described arehydrophobic substances.P a g e 20ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta- They are freely soluble in organic solvents like ether, acetone and benzene.- The melting point of fats depends on the length of the chain of theconstituent fatty acid and the degree of unsaturation.- Geometric isomerism, the presence of double bond in the unsaturated fattyacid of the lipid molecule produces geometric or cis-trans isomerism.- Fats have insulating capacity, they are bad conductors of heat.- Emulsification is the process by which a lipid mass is converted to anumber of small lipid droplets. The process of emulsification happensbefore the fats can be absorbed by the intestinal walls.- The fats are hydrolyzed by the enzyme lipases to yield fatty acids andglycerol.- The hydrolysis of fats by alkali is called saponification. This reactionresults in the formation of glycerol and salts of fatty acids called soaps.- Hydrolytic rancidity is caused by the growth of microorganisms whichsecrete enzymes like lipases. These split fats into glycerol and free fattyacids.Classification of lipids1. Simple lipids: Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.a. Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state.b. Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydricalcohols.2. Complex lipids: Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to analcohol and a fatty acid.a. Phospholipids: Lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and analcohol, a phosphoric acid residue. They frequently have nitrogencontaining bases and other substituents, eg, in glycerophospholipids theP a g e 21ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Guptaalcohol is glycerol and in sphingophospholipids the alcohol issphingosine.b. Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing a fatty acid,sphingosine, and carbohydrate.c. Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and aminolipids.Lipoproteins may also be placed in this category.3. Precursor and derived lipids: These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids,other alcohols, fatty aldehydes, and ketone bodies, hydrocarbons, lipidsoluble vitamins and hormones. Essential fatty acids-Two fatty acids are dietary essentials in humans(i)Linoleic acid, which is the precursor of arachidonic acid, the substratefor prostaglandin synthesis.(ii)α-linolenic acid is the precursor for growth and development.- Essential fatty acid deficiency can result in a scaly dermatitis, as well asvisual and neurologic abnormalities.Examples of Lipids- Fatty acids - Oleic acid, Linoleic acid, Palmitoleic acid, Arachidonic acid.- Fats and Oils - Animal fats - Butter, Lard, Human fat, Herring oil.Plant oils - Coconut oil, Corn, Palm, Peanut, Sunflower oil.P a g e 22ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta- Waxes - Spermacti, Beeswax, Carnauba wax.- Phospholipids - Lecithins, Cephalins, Plasmoalogens, Phosphatidylinositols, Sphingomyelins.- Glycolipids - Kerasin, Phrenosin, Nervon, Oxynervon.- Steroids - Cholesterol.- Terpenes - Monoterpenes, Sesquiterpenes, Diterpenes, Triterpenes.- Carotenoids - Lycopene, Carotenes, Xanthophylls.Biological Role of Lipids1.Food material: Lipids provide food, highly rich in calorific value. Onegram lipid produces 9.3 kilocalories of heat.2.Food reserve: Lipids provide are insoluble in aqueous solutions and hencecan be stored readily in the body as a food reserve.3.Structural component: Lipids are an important constituent of the cellmembrane.P a g e 23ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta4.Heat insulation: The fats are characterized for their high insulatingcapacity. Great quantities of fat are deposited in the subcutaneous layers inaquatic mammals such as whale and in animals living in cold climates.5.Fatty acid absorption: Phospholipids play an important role in theabsorption and transportation of fatty acids.6.Hormone synthesis: The sex hormones, adrenocorticoids, cholic acids andalso vitamin D are all synthesized from cholesterol, a steroidal lipid.7.Vitamin carriers: Lipids act as carriers of natural fat-soluble vitamins suchas vitamin A, D and E.8.Blood cholesterol lowering: Chocolates and beef, especially the latter one,were believed to cause many heart diseases as they are rich in saturatedfatty acids, which boost cholesterol levels in blood and clog the arterialpassage.9.Antibiotic agent. Squalamine, a steroid from the blood of sharks, has beenshown to be an antibiotic and antifungal agent of intense activity. Thisseems to explain why sharks rarely contract infections and almost never getcancer.Some of the different types of lipids are described below in detail.Fatty AcidsFatty acids are carboxylic acids (or organic acid), often with long aliphatic tails(long chains), either saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty acidsWhen a fatty acid is saturated it is an indication that there are no carbon-carbondouble bonds. The saturated fatty acids have higher melting points thanP a g e 24ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302021Email: jcpjaipur@gmail.comWebsite: jcpjaipur.com
JAIPUR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, JAIPURB.PHARMACY, FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTERBIOCHEMISTRYPrepared by: Dr. Rakesh Kumar Guptaunsaturated acids of the corresponding size due to their ability to pack theirmolecules together thus leading to a straight rod-like shape. Unsaturated fatty acidsIf a fatty acid has more than one double bond then this is an indication that it isan unsaturated fatty acid.“Most naturally occurring fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atomsand are unbranched.”Unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, have a cis-double bond(s) that createa kink in their structure which doesn’t allow them to group their molecules instraight rod-like shape.Role of FatsFats play several major roles in our body. Some of the important roles of fatsare mentioned below: Fats incorrect amounts are necessary for the proper functioning of ourbody. Many fat-soluble vitamins need to be associated with fats in order to beeffectively absorbed by the body. They also provide insulation to the body. They are an efficient way to store energy for longer periods.P a g e 25ISI-15, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura, Tonk Road,
There are four major classes of biomolecules: i. Carbohydrates ii. Lipids iii. Proteins iv. Nucleic acids 1. Carbohydrates - Carbohydrates are good source of energy. Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are long chains of sugars. Monosaccharides
biomolecules,the resultant biomolecules%COFs are antici-pated to demonstrate high efficiency for chiral separation;in addition, the protective environments provided by COFs[26] and the strong covalent bonding between the biomolecules and COF channel walls thus to prevent the denaturing and leaching of biomolecules make biomolecules%COFs ideal
biomolecules. There are four major types of biomolecules— carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Apart from being structural entities of the cell, these biomolecules play important functions in cellular processes. In this chapter you will study the structure and functions of these biomolecules. 3.1 Carbohydrates
Texts of Wow Rosh Hashana II 5780 - Congregation Shearith Israel, Atlanta Georgia Wow ׳ג ׳א:׳א תישארב (א) ׃ץרֶָֽאָּהָּ תאֵֵ֥וְּ םִימִַׁ֖שַָּה תאֵֵ֥ םיקִִ֑לֹאֱ ארָָּ֣ Îָּ תישִִׁ֖ארֵ Îְּ(ב) חַורְָּ֣ו ם
Chemistry Notes for class 12 Chapter 14 Biomolecules Biomolecules are the organic compounds which form the basis of life, i.e., they build up the living system and responsible for their growth and maintenance. The sequence that relates biomolecules to living organism isFile Size: 922KB
Thus, you see a variety of biomolecules present in all living organisms which may be small or large. The four major classes of large or macro-biomolecules are carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids. There are some other biomolecules too which may be small - primary metabolit
BIOMOLECULES BIOCHEMISTRY- is the science dealing with chemicals and physico chemical reactions found in living organisms and their life processes. Chemicals or molecules present in the living organisms are known as Biomolecules. Cellular Pool: The collection or sum total of different types of biomolecules, compounds .
Macromolecular*Biomolecules Complex,!large!biomolecules!–!the!big!four Proteins,!Carbohydrates,!Nucleotides,!lipids! Macromolecules and their building blocks have a “sense” or directionality ! Macromolecules are informational ! Biomolecules
Biomolecules are defined as any organic molecule present in a living cell. Biomolecules are mainly composed of major six elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. The next major elements are sodium, chlorine, potassium, calci
