John F. Kennedy – Leadership Qualities That Moved A Nation .
John F. Kennedy –Leadership Qualities That Moved A NationbyChristian Hald-MortensenBA in Political Science, Department of Political Science,University of Copenhagen, 2003Master in Public Administration, GSPIA, 2007Submitted to the Graduate Faculty ofGraduate School of Public and International Affairs,University of PittsburghIn partial fulfillmentOf the requirements for the degree of‘Master in Public Administration’University of Pittsburgh20071
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGHGRADUATE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC ANDINTERNATIONAL AFFAIRSThis thesis was presentedbyChristian Hald-MortensenIt was defended onMarch 20, 2007and approved byDonald Goldstein, Professor, Graduate School of Public and International AffairsLeon Haley, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Public and International AffairsKevin P. Kearns, Professor, Graduate School of Public and International AffairsThesis Advisor: Donald Goldstein, Professor,Graduate School of Public and International Affairs2
Copyright by Christian Hald-Mortensen20073
JOHN F. KENNEDY – LEADERSHIP QUALITIESTHAT MOVED A NATIONChristian Hald-Mortensen, M.P.A.University of Pittsburgh, 2007Leadership studies ask ‘what makes an effective leader?’. The research question in this thesis is:“How can the three factors - vision, decision-making style, and delegation - explain whetherJohn F. Kennedy was an effective President?”While there are many other leadership factors such as integrity, political/legislative skills andcommunications skills three factors were chosen. The research methodology was a single casestudy of the Kennedy Presidency.The Vision HypothesisA President will be effective if he has a compelling vision of the future of AmericaThe MA thesis tested whether ‘The New Frontier’ was a successful vision from which visionaryinitiatives were derived. The Moon Project was the most ambitious national scientific project intwo decades, propelling the U.S. forward in the space race.JFK’s ideas on peaceful cooperation with the Soviets were a consequence of the Cuban MissileCrisis. The vision was enunciated with his ‘Test Ban Treaty’ speech at American University, inwhich he pledged for a pause in the Cold War.The Decision Making Style HypothesisA President will be effective if he has a competent personal decision making styleThe thesis tested whether President JFK had an effective personal decision making style. JFKoften took issues out of the bureaucratic system in time to defend his own right to decide and hisown right of innovation. JFK’s collegial decision making model was a consensus-seeking vehiclewhich ensured that problems were debated through cross-fertilization.4
The Delegation Hypothesis:A President will be effective if he delegates with an eye to his political controlJFK knew what he was looking for in every position. Secretary of State Dean Rusk was probablychosen because JFK had conceived a greater role for himself. Scholarly work has demonstratedthat JFK was very engaged in foreign affairs. Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara waschosen as a rational, intelligent civilian that could provide political control over the militaryestablishment.Speech Writer Ted Sorensen knew JFK’s ideas, and they cooperated closely on the speeches ofthe Administration.JFK’s selection of advisors reflected the strengths and weaknesses of his own policy experience.5
TABLE OF CONTENTSPREFACE. 121.0INTRODUCTION. 151.1DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIP . 161.2CONTEMPORARY THEORY – THE TRANSFORMING LEADER . 161.3THE STATESMAN VS. THE POLITICIAN – A FOCUS ON THE LONG-TERM INTERESTS OF THE NATION. 171.4THE PRESIDENT MUST BE AS BIG A MAN AS HE CAN. 181.5RESEARCH QUESTION . 181.6PRESENTING THE LEADERSHIP TRAITS: VISION, DECISION-MAKING STYLE, DELEGATION. 191.7THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY – THE CASE STUDY APPROACH . 201.7.12.0Case Studies Aim at Causality . 21SECOND CHAPTER: BIOGRAPHY OF PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY . 232.1BECOMING A POLITICIAN, ‘WHY ENGLAND SLEPT’ . 242.2CONGRESS, SENATE, “PROFILES IN COURAGE” . 242.3PRESIDENT KENNEDY . 252.4JFK ENJOYED THE PRESIDENTIAL LEADERSHIP EXPERIENCE . 266
2.5WHAT WAS HIS PRESIDENTIAL PURPOSE? . E?. 283.0THIRD CHAPTER: VISION . 293.1VISION THEORY. 293.2PRESIDENT JFK’S VISION: THE NEW FRONTIER (1960) . 313.3JFK’S INAUGURAL ADDRESS PRESENTED THE VISION OF THEPRESIDENCY TO THE UNITED STATES AND TO THE WORLD (1961). 333.4THE IDEALIST VISION IN PRACTICE: THE PEACE CORPS (1961). 353.5THE VISION OF SPACE: ‘AMERICA UNRIVALED’ - THE MOONPROJECT (1961). 353.6PRESIDENT KENNEDY’S VISION OF PEACE – THE NUCLEAR TESTBAN TREATY (1963) . 373.6.1Understanding the Enemy. 383.6.2“The Vision of Peace” Demanded a Tailored Speechwriting Process . 393.6.3The Statesman vs. The Politician. 403.74.0EVALUATING PRESIDENT KENNEDY’S VISION. 41FOURTH CHAPTER: THE PRESIDENT’S DECISION MAKING STYLE. 424.1DEVELOPING THE DECISION MAKING STYLE HYPOTHESIS. 424.1.1Scholarly work on Presidential decision making . 434.1.2Alexander George & Thomas Preston: Each President has his own“style” . 444.1.3Personality plays a role in the President’s decision making style . 457
4.2ANALYSIS OF JFK’S DECISION MAKING STYLE . 464.2.1JFK’s ‘Collegial Decision Making Model’. 464.2.2The Transition from Eisenhower’s Commando System to JFK’sInformal White House (1960-61) . 474.2.3After the Bay of Pigs Fiasco: Putting Kennedy Men in Strategic Spots(1961). 494.2.4The Collegial Model in the Cuban Missile Crisis (1963) . 494.3EVALUATING PRESIDENT KENNEDY’S DECISION MAKING STYLE. 515.0FIFTH CHAPTER: DELEGATION . 535.1THEORY ON PRESIDENTIAL ADVISORS . GHTEST” & THE “ACTION INTELLECTUALS”. 555.3DELEGATION IN FOREIGN POLICY - CHOOSING SECRETARY OFSTATE, DEAN RUSK. 565.3.1When choosing Rusk - JFK sought control . 575.4CHOOSING SECRETARY OF DEFENSE, ROBERT S. MCNAMARA. 595.5A CHIEF SPEECHWRITER WITH FULL ACCESS: TED SORENSEN . 605.6BOBBY KENNEDY – PARTNER IN POLITICAL CONTROL. 635.7BALANCING ADVICE BY USE OF EXTERNAL ADVISERS: THEBRITISH AMBASSADOR, DAVID ORMSBY–GORE. 645.8EVALUATING THE LEADERSHIP FACTOR DELEGATION IN THEJFK PRESIDENCY. 658
6.0SIXTH CHAPTER: SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESIS TESTS . 676.1EVALUATING KENNEDY’S VISION . 676.2EVALUATING PRESIDENT KENNEDY’S DECISION MAKING STYLE. 686.3EVALUATING DELEGATION IN THE JFK PRESIDENCY. S ON PRESIDENTIAL LEADERSHIP?. 707.06.4.1Integrity . 706.4.2Communication Skills. 706.4.3Political Skill. 71SEVENTH CHAPTER: CONCLUSION. 727.1VISION, DECISION-MAKING STYLE AND DELEGATION – HOWRELEVANT ARE THEY TO PRESIDENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS? . 727.2IMPROVING THE THESIS DESIGN. 737.3UNANSWERED QUESTIONS REMAIN . 747.4COMPARISON BETWEEN PRESIDENT JFK AND PRESIDENT G. W.BUSH. 747.57.4.1Vision. 747.4.2The President’s Decision-Making Style . 757.4.3Delegation . 76TODAY’S FRONTIERS . 76APPENDIX A: “THE PRESIDENCY IN 1960”. 78APPENDIX B: JFK “DEMOCRATIC PARTY NOMINATION SPEECH” . 839
APPENDIX C: JOHN F. KENNEDY: “INAUGURAL ADDRESS” . ONESTABLISHING THE PEACE CORPS”. 93APPENDIX E: PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY’S “SPEECH TO A SPECIALSESSION OF CONGRESS ON ‘SENDING A MAN TO THE MOON’”. 95APPENDIX F: JOHN F. KENNEDY “MOON SPEECH - RICE STADIUM” . 105APPENDIX G: PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY’S“‘STRATEGY OF PEACESPEECH’” . 110APPENDIX H: PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY’S “‘ICH BIN EIN BERLINERSPEECH’” . 116APPENDIX I: PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY’S ADRESSBEFORE THE 18THGENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE UNITED NATIONS . 118BIBLIOGRAPHY . 12510
LIST OF FIGURESFigure 1: President John F. Kennedy’s speech on the Moon Project at Rice Stadium (RiceUniversity), September 12, 1962, Texas . 14Figure 2: JFK at the Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles (1960). 31Figure 3: Becoming the first nation to plant its flag on the Moon was essential to thecompetitive JFK. . 37Figure 4: President John F. Kennedy’s American University Commencement Address,June 10, 1963, announcing the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. 38Figure 5: JFK’s Collegial Decision Making Model according to Alexander George . 47Figure 6: President Eisenhower meets newly sworn in President Kennedy at the WhiteHouse. 48Figure 7: The Executive Committee during the Cuban Missile Crisis . 50Figure 8:President Kennedy with his advisors: Secretary of State Dean Rusk, VicePresident Lyndon B. Johnson, Attorney General Bobby Kennedy. 55Figure 9: President Kennedy with Secretary of State, Dean Rusk. 57Figure 10: President John F. Kennedy and Secretary of Defense, Robert S. McNamara . 59Figure 11: Chief Speechwriter Ted Sorensen and President John F. Kennedy. 62Figure 12: Attorney General, Robert F. Kennedy . 6311
PREFACEThe MA thesis was intended as a comparative leadership analysis of President Kennedy,President Reagan and President G. W. Bush. As the research process on the Kennedy Presidencybegan, it became difficult to research into more than one Presidency given the time constraintsand if the analysis had to be reasonably thorough.Furthermore, the historical events in the Kennedy Presidency itself - the Bay of Pigs, the CubanMissile Crisis, the launch of the Moon Project are already substantive case studies in politicalscience, ensuring a broad and in-depth analysis of Presidential Leadership at work.The thesis originally had a chapter on the President’s control of the bureaucracy, focusing on thetheoretical school of ‘Bureaucratic Politics in Foreign Policy’ started by Graham Allison: howbureaucracies form policy different from the policymakers. In the delegation chapter in the thesissome of the thoughts of political control of the Bureaucracy chapter remain.The American Presidency literature is vast – it covers the new policies initiated in that period,the time Presidents govern in and the legislative and mobilizing powers they use. From theAmerican Presidency literature, the work of ‘Presidential Greatness’ by Landis and Milkis andthe seminal work by Richard Neustadt; ‘Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents – ThePolitics of Leadership from Roosevelt to Reagan’ were chosen.An extensive literature exists on the Kennedy Presidency itself, e.g. the eyewitness accounts suchas Ted Sorensen’s ‘Kennedy’ and Arthur Schlesinger Jr.’s ‘A Thousand Days’. A range of newbooks are published every year and historian Robert Dallek’s ‘Let Every Nation Know’, RichardReeves’ ‘President Kennedy’, James N. Giglio’s ‘The Presidency of John F. Kennedy’ and JohnA. Barnes’ ‘JFK on Leadership’ are some of the recent releases chosen for this thesis.12
------------I wish to thank Professor, Dr. Donald Goldstein, Ph.D. at the Graduate School of Public andInternational Affairs at University of Pittsburgh for the many enriching conversations onleadership and American history we have had over the summer of 2006.I wish to thank Professor, Dr. Leon Haley, Ph.D. at the Graduate School of Public andInternational Affairs at University of Pittsburgh for his advice on the MA thesis as it progressed.I wish to thank Ph.D. candidate Lance Hampton, Graduate School of Public and InternationalAffairs at the University of Pittsburgh for his advice on decision-making theory.Thanks to fellow MPA-candidate Steve Salas, University of Pittsburgh and MA in PoliticalScience candidate Uno Foss Hansen, University of Copenhagen, MA in Political Science Dan V.Herron, MA candidate in Political Science, Miloud Yousfi, University of Aalborg for theircomments.13
JOHN F. KENNEDY –LEADERSHIP QUALITIESTHAT MOVED A NATION1Figure 1: President John F. Kennedy’s speech on the Moon Project at Rice Stadium (RiceUniversity), September 12, 1962, TexasBy Christian Hald-MortensenM.P.A.University of Pittsburgh‘Graduate School of Public and International Affairs’Master Thesis Project, Summer/Fall Term 2006Advisor: Professor, Dr. Donald Goldstein, Ph.D.1http://www1.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/ricetalk.htm (July 17, 2006)14
1.0INTRODUCTIONThis chapter will present Definitions of Leadership Contemporary Theory – The TransformationalLeader The Statesman vs. the Politician: A Focus onLong-term Interests of the Nation The President Must Be As Big A Man as He Can The Research Question Presenting The Leadership Traits: Vision,Decision-making Style, Delegation The Case Study Research MethodologyIn this section a brief overview of general thoughts on leadership will be presented, followed byideas on presidential leadership – this serves as a background to more specific theories on thethree factors.15
1.1DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIPLeadership has been defined in many ways: as a matter of personality, as a power relation andas ‘the process by which groups, organizations, and societies attempt to achieve commongoals’ 2 . Leadership is essential to the human condition and is both current and timeless 3 .The research field on leadership is filled with contradictions: One of the leading U.S. scholars onleadership, James McGregor Burns writes in his book, “Leadership” from 1978, that “one of theuniversal cravings of our time is the demand for compelling ( ) leadership” 4 . Yet leadership isan ambiguous concept; Thomas Wren writes it is “one of the most observed and least understoodphenomena on earth” 5 . Thomas Cronin echoes Burns, that leadership is a ‘mysterious’ conceptwhich is poorly defined and not well applied 6 .Thus there is no coherent theoretical ‘school’ of leadership thought. We have the ‘makings’ ofsuch a school in the literature but no overarching theory. The fundamental crisis is intellectual;we have failed to set the necessary intellectual and scientific standards to measure goodleadership 7 .Second paragraph.1.2CONTEMPORARY THEORY – THE TRANSFORMING LEADERHow to lead a group of followers effectively is debated within leadership theory; one strain ofthought is the idea of the “transforming leader” who literally attempts to change the mindsets ofhis followers. James McGregor Burns has done research on transforming leaders that articulate2Wren, J. Thomas (1995), “The Leader’s Companion – Insights on Leadership Through the Ages”, p. xBass, Bernard M.(1990), “Bass & Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership – Theory, Research & ManagerialApplications”, 3rd Edition, p. 134Burns, James McGregor (1978), ‘Leadership’, pp. 1, Harper Collins Publishers5Wren, J. Thomas (1995), “The Leader’s Companion – Insights on Leadership Through the Ages”, p. ix6Cronin, Thomas
JOHN F. KENNEDY – LEADERSHIP QUALITIES THAT MOVED A NATION 1 Figure 1: President John F. Kennedy’s speech on the Moon Project at Rice Stadium (Rice University), September 12, 1962, Texas By Christian Hald-Mortensen M.P.A. University of Pittsburgh ‘Graduate File Size: 1MBPage Count: 129
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President John F. Kennedy at Cape Canaveral, Florida, November 16, 1963. Topic: "Space Race" Grade Level: Grades 2-5 Subject Area: US History JOHN F. KENNEDY PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY AND MUSEUM. PHOTO BY CECIL STOUGHTON. A letter from Joan Grant to President Kennedy about the "Space Race," May 2, 1961. JOHN F. KENNEDY PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY .
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