EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, EMOTIONAL LABOUR AND WORK .
U.S. copyright law (title 17 of U.S. code) governs the reproduction and redistribution of copyrighted material.EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, EMOTIONAL LABOURAND WORK EFFECTIVENESS IN SERVICEORGANISATIONS: A PROPOSED MODELAbdul Kadir Othman, Hazman Shah Abdullah and Jasmine AhmadThe paper draws together literature on emotional intelligence (EI) and emotional labour (EL) and examinesits influence on work effectiveness (WQ) in different business settings; professional service, service shopand mass service. In professional service, it is proposed that EI is important in assisting employees toachieve highly in five facets of WQ; job role, career role, innovator role, team role and organisation role. Inservice shop, the influence of EI is moderate but the role of EL is increasingly important. In mass service, EIdoes not significantly contribute to high WQ instead EL plays its effective role in promising WQ. Therefore,the role of emotional intelligence and emotional labour in influencing service quality is dependent on thetype of service organisations.Key Words: Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour, Work Effectiveness, Service TypesINTRODUCTIONTHIS paper examines the growing application ofemotional intelligence (EI) in the development ofhuman capital in modern organisations. A numberof studies have posited the importance of EI in workperformance (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Carmeli,2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002, Higgs, 2004, Law,Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons and Schneider, 2005, Sy,Tram, and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca, 2004) as well asservice provision (Bardzil and Slaski, 2003, Kernbachand Schutte, 2005,Sojka, and Deeter-Schmeiz, 2002).Many service businesses compete successfully on thebasis of high tech or high touch operations or acombination of both. The EI proponents support itsuniversal efficacy. But, it is well established in servicescience that service businesses vary significantly(Lovelock, 1983, Schmenner, 1986, and Shostack, 1977).This paper is an attempt to develop a contingency basedor nuanced view of the fit between different types ofservice businesses and the potential role of EI ininfluencing service providers’ work effectiveness (WQ).The role of EI is defined via a set of propositions in threeservice settings namely professional service, service shopand mass service. Where the intensity of service providerclient interaction is high (more thick informationexchange, high discretion, extended interaction, highvalue exchange, for example in a professional service),EI will play an important role in affecting WQ. In serviceswhere the intensity of service provider-client interactionis low (for example consumer banking), EI has a morelimited role in promising WQ. Given the relative intensityand competitive centrality of human capital in servicebusinesses, the concept of EI is viewed as particularlyimportant in developing competitive advantage.However, in services management, the concept ofemotional labour (EL), which refers to “the managementof feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodilydisplay” (Hochschild, 1983) cannot be ignored.Organisations establish display rules, which are meantto control the employees’ behaviours during serviceencounter and generate emotional labour demands.Service personnel are required to display appropriateemotions to enhance their role. However, EL is effectivedepending on the contexts it is applied. This paperattempts to relate the concept of EI as well as EL to WQ
32 Othman, Abdullah and Ahmad according to different service settings. It is proposed thatservice provider with different levels of EI willsignificantly influence WQ through its differentdimensions; job role, career role, innovator role, teamrole and organisation role. The relationships aremoderated by different service settings.Emotional IntelligenceReviewing various definitions of emotional intelligence(EI), the one suggested by Mayer and Salovey (1997)is borrowed since the paper is meant to look at the EIas an ability to perceive, regulate and use emotions andnot as the competencies as proposed by other authors.Mayer and Salovey’s ability model defines EI as“intelligence” in the traditional sense, that is, as a setof mental abilities to do with emotions and theprocessing of emotional information that are a part of,and contribute to, logical thought and intelligence ingeneral. These abilities are arranged hierarchically frombasic psychological processes to the morepsychologically integrated and complex, and arethought to develop with age and experience in muchthe same way as crystallised abilities. Moreover, theyare considered to be independent of traits and talentsand preferred ways of behaving (Mayer and Salovey,1990). Therefore, EI is defined as the ability to perceiveaccurately, appraise, and express emotion; the abilityto access and/or generate feelings when they facilitatethought; the ability to understand emotion andemotional knowledge; and the ability to regulateemotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth.The detail and description of each dimension is includedin Table 1.Emotional LabourEmotional labour (EL) is viewed as the display of aparticular emotion in exchange for a wage. Wong andLaw (2002) in reviewing works on EL summarised thatthere are at least three types of “labour” to be offered tothe organisation in exchange for reward. Mental labourrefers to the cognitive skills and knowledge as well asthe expertise of employees. Physical labour refers to thephysical efforts of employees to achieve organisationalgoals. Emotional labour refers to the extent to which anemployee is required to present an appropriate emotionin order to perform the job in an efficient and effectivemanner (Wong and Law, 2002).One of the earliest works on EL is the one that hasbeen carried out by Hochschild (1983). The studyintroduced the construct of EL as the act of managingTable 1: EI Dimensions/Branches and Descriptions of Exemplary skillsDimensions/BranchesDescriptionsPerceiving EmotionAbility to identify emotion in other peopleAbility to identify emotion in one’s physical and psychological statesAbility to express emotions accurately and to express needs related to themAbility to discriminate between accurate/honest and inaccurate/dishonest feelingsAbility to redirect and prioritise thinking on the basis of associated feelingsUsing Emotions toFacilitate ThoughtAbility to generate emotions to facilitate judgment and memoryAbility to capitalise on mood changes to appreciate multiple points of viewAbility to use emotional states to facilitate problem solving and creativityAbility to understand relationships among various emotionsUnderstanding EmotionsAbility to perceive the causes and consequences of emotionsAbility to understand complex feelings, emotional blends, and contradictory statesAbility to understand transitions among emotionsAbility to be open to feelings, both pleasant and unpleasantAbility to monitor and reflect on emotionsManaging EmotionsAbility to engage in, prolong, or detach from an emotional stateAbility to manage emotions in oneselfAbility to manage emotions in othersSource: Salovey, Kokkonen, Lopes and Mayer (2004)VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective Vol. 12 No. 1 January–March 2008
Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour and Work Effectiveness in Service Organisations 33 emotion in the service of one’s job. Hochschild definedEL as “the management of feeling to create a publiclyobservable facial and bodily display”. She suggests thatEL involves the induction or suppression of feeling inorder to sustain in others a sense of being cared for in aconvivial safe place (Hochschild, 1983). Hochschild(1983) also proposed a classification of occupationsbased on their EL demands. The occupations high in ELare in the categories of professional technical (e.g. nurses,physicians, therapists, and lawyers), clerical (e.g.cashiers, clerks, bank tellers and bill collectors) andservice workers (e.g. protective service workers,personnel service workers, health service workers andwaiters). In most theories, employees are required todisplay the standard expression of emotions regardlessof how they actually feel (Grandey, 2000). Research onEL primarily focuses on the two dimensions namelysurface act and deep act (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002,Brotheridge, and Lee, 2003). Surface act is fake unfeltemotions and/or suppress felt emotions. Deep act, on theother hand, is modification of felt emotions so thatgenuine display of emotion will follow.The display rules are present in a number ofoccupations and generate EL demands. Servicepersonnel are typically expected to display positiveemotions to promote goodwill, patronage and spendingwhile keeping to themselves their negative feelings(Diefendorff and Richard, 2003, Grandey, 2000,Hochschild, 1983, Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987) policeinterrogators and bill collectors are demanded to displaynegative emotions to gain compliance from debtors andsuspects (Stenross and Kleiman, 1989 and Sutton,1991). In this paper, EL refers the extent to which anemployee is required to display an appropriate emotionin order to perform the job efficiently and effectivelyby using surface acting.Service TypologySilvestro, Fitzgerald, Johnson and Voss (1992) proposeda classification scheme based on business processes,bringing together several previously suggestedclassification scheme into a cohesive framework. Basedon data from eleven service industries, the authorssuggested three types of service processes; professionalservice, service shops and mass services. Theclassification is based on six dimensions; people versusequipment, level of customisation, extent of employee/customer contact, level of employee discretion, valueadded in back office versus front office and productversus process focus. This paper will apply the servicetypologies suggested by Silvestro et al. (1992). The threeservice process types are shown in Table 2.Job PerformanceJob performance is defined as the aggregated value tothe organisation of the discrete behavioural episodes thatan individual performs over a standard interval of time(Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Jobperformance, in this paper, serves as a proxy of workeffectiveness as it is used to assess how well theemployees have accomplished their assigned tasks. Jobperformance is divided into two dimensions; taskperformance and contextual performance (Borman andMotowidlo, 1993). Task performance refers tobehaviours that are directly linked with completion ofthe job. It consists of two types; executing technicalprocesses, and maintaining and servicing technicalrequirements (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997).Contextual performance, on the other hand, refers tointerpersonal behaviours or actions that benefit theorganisation. It includes activities such as helping andcooperating with others, following organisational rulesTable 2: Silvestro’s et al. (1992) Service Classification SchemeService TypesDescriptionExamplesProfessional ServiceOrganisations with relatively few transactions, highly customised,process oriented, with relatively long customer contact time.Value added process occurs in the front office where considerablejudgment is applied in meeting customer needs.Consultants, corporate banks,doctors and architectsService ShopA category which falls between professional and mass services.Value added process occurs in the front office where considerablejudgment is applied in meeting customer needs.Retail banks, rental servicesand hotelsMass ServiceOrganisations where there are many customer transactions,with limited contact time and little customisation. The offering ismainly product-oriented with most of the value being added inthe back office and little judgment applied by the front office staff.Telecommunication,bus services and fast foodsVISION—The Journal of Business Perspective Vol. 12 No. 1 January–March 2008
34 Othman, Abdullah and Ahmad and procedures, and volunteering to carry out taskactivities (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Sincethere is a gap in the literature with regard to the genericfactors to measure job performance (authors andresearchers tend to construct factors underlying jobperformance specifically to tailor with their specificresearch needs), Welbourne, Johnson and Erez (1998)have taken the initiative to investigate the general factorsunderlying the job performance dimensions. They utilisetwo related theories, namely Role Theory and IdentityTheory and suggest five dimensions of job performanceknown as Role-Based Performance Scale (RBPS), whichhas been refined and tested by the authors. RBPS assessesdifferent facets of job incumbent’s roles, which consistof job, career, innovator, team and organisation role. Thefollowing discussions will utilise the RBPS model inestablishing the linkages between EI and workeffectiveness.EI, Service Typology and Job PerformanceA large body of research work has investigated therelationship between emotional intelligence andperformance. Employees’ emotional intelligence foundit to be positively associated with job satisfaction(Langhorn, 2004, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006 and,Wong and Law, 2002), positively associated withprediction of job advancement (Dulewicz and Higgs,2000), positively associated with organisationalcommitment (Wong and Law, 2002), positivelyassociated with work performance (Abraham, 2004,Austin, 2004, Carmeli, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002,Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons andSchneider, 2005, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca,2004), negatively associated with turnover intention(Wong and Law, 2002) and negatively related to stress(Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003, Slaski, andCartwright, 2003).EI and Job RoleJob has been defined as doing things specifically relatedto one’s job description (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez,1998). Job role is the most salient aspect of the jobperformance model. Researchers have devoted a lot ofefforts in trying to establish associations between EI andwork performance especially with regard to the job beingcompleted (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Bachman,Stein, Campbell and Sitarenios, 2000, Carmeli, 2003,Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths,2002, Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyonsand Schneider, 2005, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006, andVarca, 2004). Employees with the abilities to perceive,understand, and regulate emotion in self and others andability to use emotion to facilitate thought and actionswould be able to achieve high performance in their job.They are able to accept job challenges, overcomeobstacles or work-related problems (Slaski andCartwright, 2002, 2003), and able to reduce the personaljob conflicts (Abraham, 1999). Those with low EIabilities tend to experience work-related stress (Slaskiand Cartwright, 2002, 2003) and emotional dissonance(Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987). Consequently jobdissatisfaction, a decline in organisational commitment,and, in turn, withdrawal intentions will entail (Abraham,1998, Morris, and Feldman, 1996) as well as lower jobperformance. Besides the significant relationshipbetween EI and performance, some studies have failedto establish the association between the two constructsand some found mixed results. Van Rooy andViswesvaran (2004) conducted meta-analyticinvestigation on 57 studies on EI performance link foundthat EI is weakly related to job performance. Besides,Jordan and Troth (2004) found that EI was unrelated toindividual performance. Instead, they found that EIpredicted group performance and integrative conflictresolution styles.Basically, employees with high EI abilities willachieve high level of job performance and employeeswith low level of EI abilities will end up with low levelof job performance. However, the relationships aremoderated by types of services which they are associatedwith. Since the professional service is characterised ascustomised, high interaction and high judgment requiredfrom the service providers, they need to utilise the EIabilities to the highest level so that the services renderedmeet the objectives and effective work can beaccomplished as in the case of account officers(Bachman, Stein, Campbell, and Sitarenios, 2000),counsellors (Martin Jr, Easton, Wilson, Takemoto, andSullivan, 2004), professional salespersons (Rozell,Pettijohn, and Parker, 2006) and nurses (McQueen,2004). Leidner (1999) suggested that to be effective,service provider needs more than EL so that they do nothold up the work. In service shops, the need for EI ismoderate since the service is characterised by lesscustomised, less interaction and less judgment requiredon the part of service providers. In mass service, the jobperformed by service providers is characterised asroutine, low interaction and non-judgmental. The serviceis produced with little or without personal contact withthe customers therefore, EI plays little role in helpingVISION—The Journal of Business Perspective Vol. 12 No. 1 January–March 2008
Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour and Work Effectiveness in Service Organisations 35 employees to achieve effective work effectiveness.Employees can achieve high job performance byconforming to the SOP (Collier, 1990) or conformingto the organisation’s display rules (Brotheridge andGrandey, 2002, Hochschild, 1983, and Wharton, 1999).Studies have shown that EL is important in specific jobssuch as flight attendants (Hochschild, 1983),convenience store clerks (Sutton and Rafaeli, 1988),cashiers (Rafaeli, 1989), bill collectors (Sutton, 1991),waitresses (Paules, 1991), fast food restaurant workers(Leidner, 1993, 1996) and hairdressers (Parkinson,1991). Therefore, the following proposition isdeveloped.Proposition 1(a): Depending on service types, EIsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through job role. The influence of EIon work effectiveness (job role) is high inprofessional service, moderate in service shop andlow in mass service.Proposition 1(b): Depending on service types, ELsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through job role. The influence of ELon work effectiveness (job role) is high in massservice, moderate in service shop and low inprofessional service.EI and Career RoleCareer has been defined as obtaining the necessaryskills to progress through one’s organisation(Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The conceptof career as suggested by the authors is related to careercommitment and career satisfaction. Careercommitment refers to identification with andinvolvement in one’s occupation (Meuller, Wallace,and Price, 1992) and career satisfaction refers to one’sfeelings of satisfaction with his or her career as a whole(Lounsbury et al., 2003). Employees who are satisfiedwith their career should feel high career commitmentand are willing to obtain the necessary skills to progressthrough the organisation (Poon, 2004). She added thatpeople who are able to perceive and understand theirfeelings should be able to assess their job skills andinterests, set appropriate career objectives, developrealistic career plans, and obtain the developmentalexperiences needed to take advantage of careeropportunities (Poon, 2004). Studies have found thatEI is positively related to career commitment (Aremu,2005, Carson and Carson, 1998), career success(Cooper, 1997), career progress (Dulewicz and Higgs,2000), and career development (Brown, George Curranand Smith, 2003, Stough, and De Guara, 2003). Onestudy found that EI moderates the effect of work-familyconflict on career commitment (Carmeli, 2003).Besides, one study emphasises on the importance ofemotion management on career orientation (Pulkkinen,Ohranen, and Tolvanen, 1999). To sum up, employeeswith high abilities to accurately perceive emotion in selfand others, understand emotions of self and others,manage those emotions, and use the emotions tofacilitate thought and actions may achieve career roleeffectiveness but employees with low EI abilities mayobtain l
dimensions; job role, career role, innovator role, team role and organisation role. The relationships are moderated by different service settings. Emotional Intelligence Reviewing various definitions of emotional intelligence (EI), the one suggested by Mayer and Salovey (1997) is borrowed since the paper is meant to look at the EI
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Emotional Intelligence and Management Emotional Intelligence and Perception Emotional Intelligence and Communication Conclusion Definition of Emotional Intelligence (EI) Emotional Intelligence- capacity to be Aware, Express & Control your Emotions, and handle interpersonal relationships Caringly and .
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Ability-models versus mixed-models of emotional intelligence 49 Strengths and weaknesses in the three major views of emotional intelligence 50 Mayer and Salovey‟s view of emotional intelligence. 50 Bar-On‟s view of emotional intelligence. 51 Goleman‟s view of emotional intelligence. 53 Overarching reflections and conclusions 55 References 58
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Reuven Bar-On: Emotional Quotient. Model of Emotional-Social Intelligence. Peter Salovey & John D. Mayer 1990: The Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence. Daniel Goleman 1995: Emotional Intelligence Theory. Theory of Performance. 1970 1990 The pioneers of emotional intelligence. Emotions and cognitions influence each other. The
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