Direct Instruction, DISTAR, And Language For Learning
WWC Intervention ReportU.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONWhat Works ClearinghouseMay 21, 2007Early Childhood EducationDirect Instruction, DISTAR, andLanguage for LearningProgram descriptionResearchEffectivenessThis report focuses on a family of interventions that includes allDirect Instruction products (DISTAR and Language for Learning).We use Direct Instruction to refer to this family of interventions,as well as to all versions past and present. Direct Instructionincludes teaching techniques that are fast-paced, teacherdirected, and explicit with opportunities for student responseand teacher reinforcement or correction. The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) English Language Learners topic also reviewedthe effects of a Direct Instruction program called Reading Mastery (SRA/McGraw-Hill) on the skills of children in elementaryschool; the findings are reported in the WWC English LanguageLearners intervention report Reading Mastery/SRA/McGraw-Hill.One study of Direct Instruction met the WWC evidencestandards with reservations. This study included 164 specialeducation preschool and kindergarten children from a ChildDevelopment and Mental Retardation Center at the Universityof Washington in Washington state.1 This report focuses onimmediate posttest findings to determine the effectiveness ofthe intervention.2 The WWC considers the extent of evidencefor Direct Instruction to be small for oral language, small forprint knowledge, small for cognition, and small for math. Nostudies that met the WWC evidence standards with or withoutreservations addressed phonological processing or earlyreading/writing.Direct Instruction was found to have no discernible effects on the oral language, print knowledge, cognition, and math skills ofspecial education students.(continued)1.2.WWC Intervention ReportThe ECE topic includes studies with preschool and kindergarten children when the majority (60% or more) of children in the sample are in preschool.In this study, there were six preschool classes and two kindergarten classes and the mean age of the children was under five, indicating that the studymeets this criterion for inclusion. The WWC was unable to obtain the exact sample sizes separated by age; however, the ratio of preschool to kindergarten classrooms meets the criterion described above. For further details on inclusion criteria please see the Early Childhood Education Protocol.The evidence presented in this report is based on available research. Findings and conclusions may change as new research becomes available.Direct Instruction, DISTAR, and Language for LearningMay 21, 20071
OrallanguagePrintknowledgePhonological Early reading/processingwritingCognitionRating of rovement index3Average: 1percentilepointRange: –7 to 6 percentilepointsAverage:–3 percentilepointsnanaAverage:–1 percentilepointAverage: 8percentilepointsEffectiveness (continued)Mathna not applicableAdditional programinformationDeveloper and contactDeveloped by Dr. Siegfried Engelmann, Dr. Wesley Becker, andcolleagues. Address: The National Institute for Direct Instruction, P.O. Box 11248, Eugene, OR 97440. Email: zig@nifdi.org.Telephone: (877) 485-1973.Distributed by SRA/McGraw-Hill. Address: 220 East Danieldale Road, Desoto, TX 75115. Email: SRA CustomerService@mcgraw-hill.com. Web: www.sraonline.com. Telephone: (888)SRA-4543. Computer-based Direct Instruction materials aredistributed by Funnix. Web: www.funnix.com or fun@funnix.com.Telephone (for orders): (866) 732-3963. Telephone (for support):(541) 284-2441.Organizations that provide training and in-class coaching inthe Direct Instruction methodology include: The National Institute for Direct InstructionP.O. Box 11248Eugene, OR 97440Telephone: (877) 485-1973Email: info@nifdi.orgWeb: www.nifdi.org Educational Resources, Inc.7105 Old Grant Creek RoadMissoula, MT 59808Telephone: (406) 542-50103.WWC Intervention ReportWeb: www.erigroup.us J/P Associates, Inc.284 East Chester StreetValley Stream, NY 11580Telephone: (516) 561-7803Web: www.jponline.comIn addition, the Association for Direct Instruction sponsorsworkshops and conferences on Direct Instruction:Association for Direct InstructionP.O. Box 10252Eugene, OR 97440Telephone: (541) 485-1293Web: www.adihome.orgScope of useDirect Instruction was developed in the 1960s and has beenrevised and renamed over the years. The Direct Instructionmodel was first branded as the Direct Instruction System forTeaching Arithmetic and Reading (DISTAR), which included STAR Reading, DISTAR Arithmetic, and DISTAR Language I(the programs used in the study reviewed for this WWC report).While Direct Instruction products have evolved over the years,the Direct Instruction approach remains the same, and theThese numbers show the average and range of student-level improvement indices for all findings across the study.Direct Instruction, DISTAR, and Language for LearningMay 21, 20072
Additional programinformation (continued)version of Direct Instruction (DISTAR) used in the studies inthis report are still available and relevant to today’s consumers.An overview of Direct Instruction programs for preschool andkindergarten children follows. Direct Instruction products arealso available for older students, but they are not included inthis report because they are not relevant to an early childhoodpopulation. DISTAR Reading became Reading Mastery. Reading Masteryincludes these programs:PrekindergartenReading Mastery ClassicReading Mastery PlusKindergartenHorizonsJourneysFunnix (computer-based) DISTAR Arithmetic retained that name and includes theseprograms:Prekindergarten (high performing students only)DISTAR ArithmeticKindergartenConnecting Math ConceptsDISTAR Arithmetic DISTAR Language I has become Language for Learning. (Student materials only are still available for the original DISTARLanguage I.) There are currently two companion programs:Language for LearningLanguage for ThinkingDirect Instruction materials are currently used by thousandsof schools across the nation and internationally; however, specific information is not available on the number or demographicsof children or centers using the materials.TeachingDirect Instruction is a teaching technique based on extensive taskanalysis. Instruction is fast-paced, teacher-directed, prescribed,and explicit with all children receiving instruction on a pre-speci-WWC Intervention ReportDirect Instruction, DISTAR, and Language for Learningfied sequence of activities at the same time. In center-basedsettings, teachers typically use Direct Instruction interventionswith small groups and with typically developing, disadvantaged,or at-risk children. Funnix is a computer-based program that isbased on the principles of Direct Instruction but does not requiresubstantial teacher training and is taught in one-on-one or smallgroup settings with a teacher or tutor operating the computer.Ample opportunity is provided for cued student response, teacherreinforcement, and frequent correction. In all Direct Instructionbased programs, the school staff takes responsibility for the performance of students, teachers, and instructional subgroups, andindividual student progress is closely monitored. Direct Instructionis primarily used with K-12 students and adults; however, someDirect Instruction based programs have been developed forpreschool children. At the time the studies the WWC reviewedwere conducted, the programs used for preschool children wereDISTAR Language I, DISTAR Arithmetic, and DISTAR Reading.DISTAR Language I focuses on teaching syntactic, semantic,and pragmatic skills. Instruction is teacher-directed, withstudents responding to teacher instructions, questions, andvisual cues and with teachers providing verbal praise for correct responses. Language for Learning (the updated version ofDISTAR Language I) also uses an explicit instructional approachwith scripted lessons to teach oral language skills to young children, but has larger print and pictures than DISTAR Language I.Language for Thinking (a companion to Language for Learning)is designed to teach children the basic language of instruction,concepts, and reasoning. DISTAR Arithmetic uses explicit strategies to teach children basic math skills necessary to learningdifficult concepts later on (such as ratios, proportions, and dataanalysis). DISTAR Reading uses explicit strategies to teach children the skills they need to learn how to read (skills like blendingand rhyming).All available Direct Instruction programs have teacher materialsavailable for purchase and customer service and customer support is available from SRA/McGraw-Hill via phone or email. Training is required to orient teachers and provide practice in executingMay 21, 20073
Additional programinformation (continued)the various program techniques. Only Reading Mastery, Languagefor Learning, and DISTAR Arithmetic are recommended for at-risk,low-performing preschoolers. For average and above-averagepreschoolers, the other programs are appropriate.CostDISTAR Language I (1987 version) workbooks I and II each cost 46 for a package of five; workbook III costs 43 for a packageof five. Teacher materials are no longer available. Language forLearning workbooks A, B, C, and D each cost 31 for a packageof five. Teacher materials cost 660 plus 27 for an additionalteacher’s guide. Language for Thinking children’s picture bookscost 37, and a package of five workbooks costs 60. Theteacher materials cost 597 and an additional teacher’s guide isavailable for 27. Additional resources for the programs are alsoavailable for purchase.DISTAR Arithmetic and Connecting Math Concepts are bothavailable for kindergarten children. DISTAR Arithmetic Level Itake-home workbooks I, II, and III each cost 46 for a packageof five. Teacher materials cost 600 plus 27 for an additionalteacher’s guide and 23 for a behavioral objectives book.DISTAR Arithmetic 1975 and 1976 materials are also available forpurchase. Connecting Math Concepts workbooks I and II eachcost 59 for a package of five. Teacher materials cost 299;additional teacher guides, answer keys, and other materials areavailable for 173.ResearchSix studies reviewed by the WWC investigated the effects ofDirect Instruction in center-based settings. One study (Cole,Dale, Mills, & Jenkins, 1993) was a randomized controlled trialthat met WWC evidence standards with reservations.4 Theremaining five studies did not meet WWC evidence screens.Cole et al. (1993) included 164 three- to seven-year-oldchildren from one experimental school in Washington state.4.WWC Intervention ReportDISTAR Reading is no longer available for purchase; however,Reading Mastery Plus and Reading Mastery Classic are availablefor preschool children and Horizons, Journeys, and Funnix areavailable for kindergarten children. The student storybook forReading Mastery Plus costs 9, workbook A costs 32 for a package of five, and workbooks B and C each cost 52 for a packageof five. Teacher materials for Reading Mastery Plus cost 798 plus 27 for an additional teacher’s guide. Reading Mastery Classicstorybooks I, II, and III each cost 17 and workbooks A, B, and Ceach cost 52 for a package of five. Teacher materials for ReadingMastery Classic cost 612 plus 27 for an additional teacher’sguide. Other additional resources are also available for both Reading Mastery programs. Funnix Beginning Reading costs 129 andincludes two instructional discs, a tutorial overview disc, and astudent workbook.Horizons literature collection level A (kindergarten) costs 138plus 30 for an additional literature guide. Level A textbook Icosts 29 and textbooks II and III each cost 33. Level A workbooks I, II, and III each cost 52 for a package of five. Level Ateacher materials cost 597 plus 27 for an additional teacher’sguide. Fast track materials are also available for purchase. Journeys kindergarten textbook costs 29 and workbooks I, II, and IIIeach cost 52 for a package of five. Teacher materials cost 798plus 27 for an additional teacher’s guide.They had special needs and no previous preschool experience.Cole et al. compared oral language, print knowledge, cognition, and math outcomes for children participating in a DirectInstruction group with outcomes for children participating ina comparison group that used Mediated Learning. MediatedLearning focuses on developing children’s social and cognitiveprocessing skills without emphasis on external reinforcement.The study was classified as “meets evidence standards with reservations” due to severe overall attrition. Based on the number of classes and childrenin the original study, the sample size at assignment was 368 children with disabilities [Cole et al. (1993) stated that the full sample included just 206children]. However, the analysis sample was 164 children. Based upon the inconsistency between the figures at assignment, the study was downgradedfor severe overall attrition.Direct Instruction, DISTAR, and Language for LearningMay 21, 20074
Extent of evidenceThe WWC categorizes the extent of evidence in each domain assmall or moderate to large (see the What Works ClearinghouseExtent of Evidence Categorization Scheme). The extent ofevidence takes into account the number of studies and thetotal sample size across the studies that met WWC evidencestandards with or without reservations.5The WWC considers the extent of evidence for DirectInstruction to be small for oral language, small for print knowledge, small for cognition, and small for math. No studies thatmet WWC evidence standards with or without reservationsaddressed phonological processing or early reading/writing.EffectivenessFindingsThe WWC review of interventions for early childhood educationaddresses children’s outcomes in six domains: oral language,print knowledge, phonological processing, early reading/writing,cognition, and math.6Oral language. Cole et al. (1993) analyzed findings forthree measures in this outcome domain [McCarthy Scales ofChildren’s Abilities (MSCA) verbal subtest; Peabody PictureVocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R); Test of Early LanguageDevelopment (TELD)] and found no statistically significant differences between the intervention and comparison groups for anyof the measures.7 The average effect size across the three orallanguage measures was neither statistically significant nor largeenough to be considered substantively important according toWWC criteria (that is, at least 0.25). In the oral language domain,this study showed no discernible effects according to WWCcriteria.Print knowledge. Cole et al. (1993) analyzed findings for onemeasure in this outcome domain [Test of Early Reading Ability(TERA)], but did not find a statistically significant differencebetween the intervention and comparison groups. The effectwas not large enough to be considered substantively importantaccording to WWC critera (that is, at least 0.25). In the printknowledge domain, this study showed no discernible effectsaccording to WWC criteria.Cognition. Cole et al. (1993) analyzed findings for twomeasures in this outcome domain (MSCA Perceptual subtest;MSCA Memory subtest) and found no statistically significantdifferences between the intervention and comparison groupsfor either measure.8 The average effect size across the twocognitive measures was neither statistically significant nor largeenough to be considered substantively important according toWWC criteria (that is, at least 0.25). In the cognition domain, thisstudy showed no discernible effects according to WWC criteria.Math. Cole et al. (1993) analyzed findings for one measure inthis outcome domain (MSCA Quantitative subtest) and did notfind a statistically significant difference between the interventionand comparison groups. The effect was not large enough to beconsidered substantively important according to WWC criteria5.6.7.8.WWC Intervention ReportThe Extent of Evidence Categorization was developed to tell readers how much evidence was used to determine the intervention rating, focusing on thenumber and sizes of studies. Additional factors associated with a related concept, external validity, such as students’ demographics and the types ofsettings in which studies took place, are not taken into account for the categorization.The level of statistical significance was reported by the study authors or, where necessary, calculated by the WWC to correct for clustering within classrooms or schools and for multiple comparisons. For an explanation, see the WWC Tutorial on Mismatch. See Technical Details of WWC-ConductedComputations for the formulas the WWC used to calculate the statistical significance. In the case of Direct Instruction, no corrections for clustering ormultiple comparisons were needed.The authors also analyzed findings for three additional measures, but the WWC does not include them in the overall rating of effectiveness becausethey were not administered to the full sample of children in the study, and the WWC was unable to obtain the analysis sample sizes for each of thesemeasures.The authors also analyzed findings for a composite measure, but the WWC does not include it in the overall rating of effectiveness because the WWCincludes the individual measures used to develop the composite.Direct Instruction, DISTAR, and Language for LearningMay 21, 20075
Effectiveness (continued)(that is, at least 0.25). In the math domain, this study showed nodiscernible effects according to WWC criteria.Rating of effectivenessThe WWC rates the effects of an intervention in a given outcomedomain as: positive, potentially positive, mixed, no discernibleThe WWC found DirectInstruction to have nodiscernible effects for orallanguage, print knowledge,cognition, or mathReferenceseffects, potentially negative, or negative. The rating of effectiveness takes into account four factors: the quality of the researchdesign, the statistical significance of the findings,6 the size ofthe difference between participants in the intervention and thecomparison conditions, and the consistency in findings acrossstudies (see the WWC Intervention Rating Scheme).Improvement indexThe WWC computes an improvement index for each individualfinding. In addition, within each outcome domain, the WWCcomputes an average improvement index for each study and anaverage improvement index across studies (see Technical Detailsof WWC-Conducted Computations). The improvement index represents the difference between the percentile rank of the averagestudent in the intervention condition versus the percentile rankof the average student in the comparison condition. Unlike therating of effectiveness, the improvement index is based entirelyon the size of the effect, regardless of the statistical significanceof the effect, the study design, or the analyses. The improvementindex can take on values between –50 and 50, with positivenumbers denoting results favorable to the intervention group.The average improvement index for oral language is 1percentile point for the one study, with a range of –7 to 6percentile points across findings. The improvement index forprint knowledge is –3 percentile points for the one outcome inthe study. The average improvement index for cognition is –1percentile point for the one study, with no range across findingsbecause the improvement index for each of the two measures isalso –1. The improvement index for math is 8 percentile pointsfor the one outcome in the study.Met WWC evidence standards with reservationsCole, K. N., Dale, P. S., Mills, P. E., & Jenkins, J. R. (1993).Interaction between early intervention curricula and studentcharacteristics. Exceptional Children, 60(1), 17–28.Additional source:Cole, K. N., Dale, P. S., & Mills, P. E. (1991). Individual differences in language delayed children’s responses to directand interactive preschool instruction. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education
WWC Intervention Report U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION What Works Clearinghouse Early Childhood Education May 21, 2007 Direct Instruction, DISTAR, and Language for Learning Program description This report focuses on a family of interventions that includes all . Direct Instruction. products (DISTAR. and . Language for Learning). We use . Direct .
Five Meanings of Direct Instruction Barak Rosenshine. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position of the supporting . Direct instruction refers to instruction led by the teacher, as in “the teacher provided direct instruction in solving these problems.” But if one enters “direct instruction”
Benjamin also interviews Siegfried Englemann, the developer of DISTAR and author of Your Child Can Succeed (1975). The resolution of deficiencies cannot, however, occur in the. classroom if effective instruction is barred from/the schools. o. Benjamin'discusses a three million dollar U.S.
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promote the retention of Native American languages. Language immersion - which can be defined as a method of instruction where the target language is used as the language of instruction - is now recognized in the fields of language revitalization and Indigenous language education as the best way to progress towards fluency. In that
A WIZARD-OF-OZ EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE WATER REDUCTION AND USER TRAINING WITH AN "AUTONOMOUS" FAUCET William Jou Stanford University Stanford, CA, USA
