Community Management Of Natural Resources In Africa .
In many parts of Africa, local communities have depended on,and managed, wildlife as a key resource since the Stone Age.Over the last twenty years, this subsistence strategy has evolvedinto a development strategy that has become increasinglyformalised as “community-based natural resource management”(CBNRM), combining rural development, local empowerment,and nature conservation.Led by new ideas about the merits of decentralized, collectiveresource governance regimes, and creative field experiments suchas Zimbabwe’s CAMPFIRE, these community-based approachesevolved in a wide range of ecological, political, and socialcontexts across Africa. This review provides an unprecedentedpan-African synthesis of CBNRM, drawing on multiple authorsand a wide range of documented experiences from Southern,Eastern, Western and Central Africa. The review discusses thedegree to which CBNRM has met poverty alleviation, economicdevelopment and nature conservation objectives. In its concludingchapter, the report suggests a way forward for strengtheningCBNRM and addressing key challenges in the years ahead.Community management of natural resources in AfricaCommunity management of natural resources inAfrica: Impacts, experiences and future directionsThe views expressed in this study do not necessarily representthose of the institutions involved.ISBN: 978-1-84369-755-8ISSN: 1605-1017Roe et al.Natural Resource Issues No. 18Community management ofnatural resources in AfricaImpacts, experiences and future directionsEdited by Dilys Roe, Fred Nelson and Chris Sandbrook
Community management ofnatural resources in AfricaImpacts, experiences and future directionsEdited by Dilys Roe, Fred Nelson and Chris Sandbrook
First published by the International Institute for Environment and Development (UK)in 2009Copyright International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED)All rights reservedISBN: 978-1-84369-755-8 ISSN: 1605-1017A catalogue record of this book is available from the British LibraryCopies of this report can be purchased from Earthprint LtdEmail: orders@earthprint.co.ukWebsite: www.earthprint.comOr the IIED website:www.iied.orgTo contact the editors please write to:Dilys Roe, Fred Nelson and Chris SandbrookInternational Institute for Environment and Development, 3 Endsleigh Street,London WC1H 0DD, UK.Tel: 44 (0)20 7388 2117Fax: 44 (0)20 7388 2826Email: dilys.roe@iied.org, fnelson@habari.co.tz and csandbrook@yahoo.co.ukCitation: Roe D., Nelson, F., Sandbrook, C. (eds.) 2009. Community managementof natural resources in Africa: Impacts, experiences and future directions, NaturalResource Issues No. 18, International Institute for Environment and Development,London, UK.Design: Eileen Higgins, email: eileen@eh-design.co.ukCover photo: Headline rock-art in the Game Pass Shelter, Kamberg, Drakensberg,South Africa, Kwazulu-Natal, by McPHOTO / Still PicturesPrinted by: Park Communications, UK on 100% recycled paper using vegetable oilbased ink
ContentsAcronymsAcknowledgementsExecutive Summaryiivvii1. Introduction12. The origins and evolution of community-based natural resourcemanagement in Africa53. Community involvement in natural resources management in Africa– regional overviews3.1 Introduction: Different understandings of, and approaches to, CBNRM in different regions3.2 Central Africa3.3 East Africa3.4 Southern Africa3.5 West Africa3.6 Summary4. What has CBNRM achieved in Africa? The ‘3Es’ – empowerment,economics, environment4.1 Empowerment4.2 Economics4.3 Environment5 CBNRM as a mechanism for addressing global environmental challenges1313152634404955556481956. CBNRM in Africa – opportunities and challenges1057 Where next? A policy road map for CBNRM across Africa121References131Annex 1: The policy and legal framework for CBNRM in Africa155Annex 2: Formal CBNRM provisions in Africa167Annex 3: The scale of PAs and communally managed areas in African countries 180Annex references183
OPASAuthorized AssociationAffirmative Action Loan SchemeSupport to Decentralised Collectives for Participatory DevelopmentL’Action Communautaire pour la Protection de la Nature Itombwe MwengaAdministrative Management and Design for Game Management AreasAgence Française de DéveloppementAfforestation / ReforestationVillagers’ Association for the Management of Wildlife ReservesAfrican Wildlife FoundationLarge multi-national conservation and development NGOBeach Management UnitsCoopérative Agro Forestière de la TrinationaleCommunal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous ResourcesCentral African RepublicCentral African Regional Program for the EnvironmentCentre for Applied Social SciencesConvention on Biological DiversityCongo Basin Forest FundCommunity Based Forest ManagementCongo Basin Forest PartnershipCommunity Based Natural Resource ManagementCommunity Based Natural Resource ZoneCommunity Based OrganisationCommunity Conserved AreasClean Development MechanismCommunity Development TrustNational Centre for Wildlife ManagementCollaborative Forest ManagementCommunity Forest ReserveControlled Hunting AreaConservation InternationalCentre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pourle développementCommunautés de BasesCommission for the Forests of Central AfricaCommunal Property AssociationCommunity Protected Areas InitiativeCommunites RuralesCommunity Resource Management AreaDja Biosphere ReserveDepartment for International DevelopmentDirection Générale de la Coopération Internationale et DéveloppementDja Periphery Community Engagement ProjectDemocratic Republic of the CongoEnvironmental Change InstituteConservation et Utilisation Rationnelle des Ecosystemes Forestiersd’Afrique CentraleEcosystèmes protégés en Afrique Soudano-Sahélienne
APNGONPNPWSNTFPNRMNRMPOECDPAPACPEAPEconomic Community of West African StatesState department of Water and ForestsEuropean UnionFood and Agricultural OrganisationCentral African FrancFonds Francais pour l’Environnement MondialNatural Resource Management CommunitiesGestion Contractualisée des ForêtsGross Domestic ProductSustainable Natural Resource ManagementGlobal Environment FundGestion Locale SécuriséeGroupement d’Intérêt EconomiqueGame Management AreaDeutsche Gesellschaft für Technische ZusammenarbeitHuman Gorilla Conflict Resolution ProgrammeHuman Wildlife ConflictIntegrated Conservation and Development ProjectInternational Institute for Environment and DevelopmentInternational Foundation for the Conservation of WildlifeItombwe Massif Community Conserved ZoneIntergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeInternational Union for ConservationIUCN Regional Office for Southern AfricaKruger National ParkKenya Wildlife ServiceLiving in a Finite EnvironmentLuangwa Integrated Resources Development ProgrammeMillennium Ecosystem AssessmentMultilateral Environmental AgreementMinistry of Waters, Forests, Hunting, Fishing, and the EnvironmentMinistry of Foreign AffairsMinistry of Environment and ForestsMinistry of Natural Resources and TourismNamibia Association of Community Based Natural Resource ManagementSupport OrganisationsNature Conservation Research CentreNational Development PlanNear East FoundationNational Environmental Action PlanNon-Governmental OrganisationNational ParkNational Parks and Wildlife ServiceNon-Timber Forest ProductsNatural Resource ManagementNatural Resources Management ProjectOrganisation for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentProtected AreaProblem Animal ControlPoverty Eradication Action Planiii
OVICPayments for Ecosystem ServicesParticipatory Forest ManagementProgramme National de Gestion des TerroirsRural Land Management and Community Infrastructure Development projectProgramme of WorkProjet Gestion des Ecosystèmes Périphériques au Parc NationalNouabalé-NdokiReorganisation Agraire et FonciereRural District CouncilLa Réserve Communautaire des Primates de BakumbuleReduced Emissions from Deforestation and DegradationLa Réserve communautaire Ngira’YituRepublic of CongoSabyinyo Community Lodge AssociationSouth Africa National ParksSouthern Africa Sustainable Use Specialist GroupSwedish International Development Cooperation AgencyLocal Management AgencySociete de Developpement des Forets en Cote d’IvoireSahel and West Africa ClubTanzania National ParksTourism in Ethiopia for Sustainable Future AlternativesTribal Grazing Land PolicyTanzania Natural Resource ForumTanzania ShillingsUnion of Associations for Gorilla Conservation and Community Developmentin eastern DRCUnited Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUnited States of AmericaUnited States Agency for International DevelopmentUganda Wildlife AuthorityVillage Land Forest ReservesWildlife Conservation Revolving FundWildlife Conservation SocietyWorld Database on Protected AreasWildlife Integration for Livelihood DiversificationWildlife Management AreaWorld Resources InstituteWorld Wildlife FundSouthern Africa Regional Programme OfficeZambian Wildlife AuthorityZones Cynégétiques VillageoisesZones d’Intérêt Cynégétique à Gestion CommunautaireZones Villageoise d’Intérêt Cynégétique
AcknowledgementsProduction of this report was a highly collaborative effort and a great manyacknowledgements are due.The report was commissioned and funded by the French Ministry of Foreignand European Affairs (Directorate General for International Cooperation andDevelopment), the French Global Environment Facility through the Bio-Hubproject, and the French Development Agency. Additional financial support wasprovided by IIED’s Poverty and Conservation Learning Group initiative. CIRADprovided in-kind support through the contributions of Aurélie Binot to the Westand Central Africa reviews and to the French translation.This report was compiled by Dilys Roe (IIED), Fred Nelson (Maliasili Initiatives)and Chris Sandbrook (IIED/University of Cambridge) and is based on materialcollected through a series of desk-based reviews conducted by:Central Africa: Lauren Coad (Environmental Change Institute, Oxford University)with Aurélie Binot (CIRAD)East Africa: Tom Blomley (Acacia Consulting) with Fred Nelsonand Chris SandbrookSouthern Africa: Chris Sandbrook with Fred NelsonWest Africa: Lauren Coad with Aurélie Binot.Additional chapters were provided by Ivan Bond (IIED), Russell Taylor (Bio-Huband ex-WWF SARPO) and Marshall Murphree (CASS, University of Zimbabwe).Additional inputs on specific themes were provided by Muriel Cote (Universityof Cambridge) and Su Fei Tan (IIED).Fred Nelson would like to acknowledge support from the Southern AfricaSustainable Use Specialist Group (SASUSG) project on ‘Politics of NaturalResource Governance in East and Southern Africa’, funded by SASUSG andthe Sand County Foundation Bradley Fund for the Environment, which was thesource of some of the ideas and material contributed to this report.A huge number of people responded to our call for information and sent usrelevant documentation including: Yves Hausser, Nesbert Samu, Jonathan.Davies, Katherine Homewood, Isilda Nhantumbo, Reimund Kube, ChristianKull, Dale Lewis, Bruce Campbell, Joy Hecht, John Watkin, Helle Biseth,BrianJones,Simon Anstey, Kate Studd, Ed Barrow, Rosaleen Duffy, Aaron Russell,Richard Hasler, Jacques Pollini, David McDermott Hughes, James Gruber, StuartMarks, Sharon Pollard, Catherine Corson, Rudi Hahn, Wayne Lotter, LehlohonoloJoe Phadima, Sarah Bologna, Tom Erdmann, James Mackinnon, GeoffroyMauvais, Andrew Dunn, Ced Hesse, Ben Phalan, Olivier Hymas, KatherineAbernathy, Leslie Grey, Sophie Allebone-Webb.
A draft of this report was reviewed at a workshop in Harare by a peer reviewgroup consisting of: Dominique Dulieu (CIRAD); Lilian Goredema (WWF SARPO);Brian Jones (independent and NACSO); Sebastien Le Bel (CIRAD); GeorgeMapuvire (CIRAD); Solomon Mombeshora (independent and University ofZimbabwe); Marshall Murphree (CASS); Nesbert Samu (ex-AWF) and RussellTaylor (ex-WWF SARPO).Additional IIED staff involved in the conception, production and disseminationof this report include: Jamie Skinner, Khanh Tran-Thanh, Marie Jaecky andNicole Kenton.vi
Executive summaryAcross sub-Saharan Africa, natural resources remain central to rural people’slivelihoods. Local norms and customs shape people’s everyday forms ofresource use. In contrast, the commercial uses of natural resources oftenremain highly centralized, conditioned by government policies of the colonialand post-colonial eras.During the past several decades, there has been a shift from this predominantlycentralized natural resource management towards more devolved models knownvery broadly as Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM).CBNRM models work to strengthen locally accountable institutions for naturalresource use and management, enabling local groups of people to make betterdecisions about the use of land and resources. Because it involves the transferof authority over natural resources to local communities, including of potentiallyvaluable resources such as wildlife and timber, CBNRM is often about majorinstitutional reforms and fundamental changes in power.This pan-African review of the impacts, challenges, and future directions ofCBNRM highlights the diverse range of forms of community involvement innatural resource management that have emerged across the continent duringthe past twenty years. CBNRM means different things to different actors indifferent places across sub-Saharan Africa. In much of western and centralAfrica, CBNRM is interpreted by government authorities, donor agencies, andNGOs as benefit-sharing or outreach between national parks and adjacentcommunities. In such instances communities are not empowered as authorizedlocal resource managers but are involved principally as passive recipients ofbenefits controlled elsewhere. This form of outreach and benefit-sharing is alsoa characteristic of some protected area management in East African countries.In Southern Africa, CBNRM is most clearly defined in terms of the devolutionof rights to make management decisions, and capture benefits, in relation toresources located on communal lands.In all instances CBNRM involves some degree of co-management of resourcesbetween central authorities, local government, and local communities whichshare rights and responsibilities through diverse institutional arrangements. Thevarious forms of CBNRM and their many locally-specific adaptations have greatlydiversified approaches to natural resource governance in sub-Saharan Africa.Some notable ecological, economic, and institutional achievements havebeen documented.n In Namibia communal land conservancies have proliferated, and now covermore than 14% of the country, involve over 200,000 people and earnUS 2.5 million per annum. Key wildlife resources have recovered and illegaluse of wildlife has fallen.vii
n In Zimbabwe, CAMPFIRE generated 20 million in revenues for localcommunities and district governments from 1989 to 2001, and also resultedin over 40,000 km2 of communal land being managed for wildlife production.More importantly, some stakeholders have adapted to the current economicand political crises by forming new types of relationships to maintain wildlifeproduction systems on communal land.n In Tanzania, more than 3.6 million hectares of forests and woodlands are nowmanaged as Village Land Forest Reserves, entirely under the control of locallyelected village governments, or as co-managed forests between villages andeither local or central government.n In Kenya the development of community-level wildlife-based tourism ventureson communal and private land is making a major contribution to the totalnational conservation estate.n In Cameroon, revisions to forestry law have enabled community associationsand cooperatives to acquire the exclusive rights to manage and exploit upto 5,000 ha of customary forest, under a 15-year contract, resulting in thecreation of over 100 new Community Forests.viiin In Ghana, 200,000 hectares of forest have been demarcated underthe Community Resource Management Area Policy of 2000. This givesparticipating communities full authority to control access and harvesting ofresources within their management area. These changes are reducing theillegal activities in the areas under this type of management.Through its potential to develop more sustainable natural resource governanceregimes and to enhance local economic benefits, CBNRM is an importantstrategy for pursuing the goals of various multilateral environmental treaties,such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC). Existing community based organisations for the management ofland and natural resources, for example, provide immediate opportunitiesfor establishing pilot projects for Reduced Emissions from Deforestation andDegradation (REDD) to test innovative international finance mechanisms linkedto the UNFCCC. The direct and indirect benefits created by CBNRM programmesand projects are also supporting progress, albeit slow, towards the MillenniumDevelopment Goals and are an important stimulus to more democratic forms ofgovernance in sub-Saharan Africa.Despite these notable local and national achievements, fundamental challengesto CBNRM remain. Overall, there remain relatively few cases of communitiesobtaining formal authority over lands and the natural resources found on thoselands. Centralized control over natural resources persists despite the ubiquitouschange in the rhetoric over land and resource management. In some cases,
trends point more towards central consolidation of the right to use and allocatevaluable resources such as wildlife and timber.Conflicts between local groups and other more powerful actors, includingboth state agencies and private sector investors, remain widespread across thesub-continent and are often intensifying. There are strong political economicincentives for political elites and central bureaucracies to consolidate their controlover natural resources. Foreign donors and international NGOs spearheadingCBNRM efforts are often poorly positioned, in a political sense, to addressthese challenges. Further conflicts arise from differences in perceived prioritymanagement objective – the most appropriate scale at which to manage froman ecological perspective rarely tallies with the most appropriate scale from asocial or economic perspective.Similar challenges apply at the local level, when local governance institutionsare not downwardly accountable to the community and benefits aredisproportionately captured by local elites. Tensions exist in some placesbetween the development of locally accountable governance and traditionalauthorities. Often, CBNRM interventions are not accompanied by the typeof long-term investments in capacity-building required to ensure broaderparticipation and the accountability of local leaders to their community. Thedistribution of local benefits of CBNRM can also be influenced by the natureof benefits generated and how individuals are able to gain access to them. Insome cases the principles that govern the distribution of benefits are built intoCBNRM systems, as in Namibia. In different programmes, benefits are variouslychanneled through: employment; the sale of products; and though communityconstruction projects in which the op
management in Africa 3. Community involvement in natural resources management in Africa – regional overviews 3.1 Introduction: Different understandings of, and approaches to, CBNRM in different regions 3.2 Central Africa 3.3 East Africa 3.4 Southern Africa 3.5 West Africa 3.6 Summary 4. What has CBNRM achieved in Africa? The ‘3Es .
then discuss four key challenges to enhancing assess and sustainable management of natural resources: (i) expanding access to natural resources to increase incomes and improve welfare; (ii) increasing security of access to natural resources, in the context of changing institutional and market
Natural resource based planning starts with conducting a natural resources inventory so a community can see its assets. It then requires that resources be prioritized. Plans and regulations then direct development to the areas most suited for protection, ensuring minimal impact on priority natural resources through the
contents 2 3 executive summary 5 women, poverty and natural resource management 5 poverty 7 land tenure 9 education 10 health 17 engage women, drive change 17 empowering women to manage natural resources 21 engaging women in natural resource management is good for women 23 engaging women in natural resource management is good for
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