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University of the PhilippinesCollege of ArchitectureMaster in Tropical Landscape ArchitectureECOLOGICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING:An Alternative Design Approach to Landscape Design in the Angat River BasinPresented to theFaculty of College of ArchitectureUniversity of the PhilippinesIn partial fulfilment ofthe requirement for the courseThesis Writing in Landscape ArchitectureLA 300MADONNA P. DANAOMaster in Tropical Landscape Architecture CandidateProf. HONORIO PALARCA
AbstractIntensive land use and fragmentation in the Philippines has prompted landuse planners to consider a strategic approach to conservation and developmentthat channels urban growth and preserved lands into more suitable locations.Ecological infrastructure planning represents a strategic approach to natural andphysical resource conservation that combines the efforts of previous conservationplanning methodologies and practices into a systematic framework thatencompasses larger and broader planning goals, particularly in watershed areas.This research argues that ecological infrastructure planning approach is aviable approach to sustain air and water resources and contribute to health andquality of life in watershed areas such as Angat River basin/watershed. Ecologicalinfrastructure planning approach is defined as decision-making and actions oninterconnecting networks of waterways, wetlands, woodlands, wildlife habitats andother natural areas; green ways, parks, and other conservation lands; workingfarms, ranches and forests, and wilderness and other open spaces that supportnative species, maintain natural ecological process, This paper aims to provide acomprehensive understanding and description of ecological infrastructure, identifydifferent ecological processes that affects landscape planning, apply ecologicalinfrastructure planning process as guide in sustainable development of theurbanizing watershed areas. It hopes to contribute to the application and eventualintegration of appropriate ecological infrastructure principles and strategies inlocal planning and decision- making process in Angat River Basin, focusing on theAngat Afterbay Regulatory Dam area.Keywords: Ecological Infrastructure, ecology, environment, infrastructure,biodiversity, natural process, security patterns.
Table of ContentsAbstractTable of ContentsAcknowledgementDedication1. Introduction: Context and Rationale1.1.1.2.1.3.1.4.Project Objectives and Research ProblemsStudy Relevance andRationale1.2.1 Assumption1.2.2. Limitations1.2.3. Hypothesis or Key Argument of ResearchConceptual –Analytical Framework: Introduction to key concepts andtermsReview of Related literature and CaseStudies2. Various Traditional and Alternative Ecological Approaches to Planning:Principles and Opportunities2.1 Land usePlanning2.2. LandscapePlanning2.3 Ecological Infrastructure2.4. Green Infrastructure3. Ecological Risk in Angat River Basin3.1. Land use Related Risk3.2. Disaster Related Risk3.3. Infrastructure – Vulnerability Risk4. Application of Ecological Infrastructure design principle to Angat River Basin4.1. Current Plans and Programs4.2. Design Quality Analysis of Currrent Plans and Programs4.3. Application of Ecological infrastructure Approach5. Integration of Ecological Infrastructure in Local and Planninga nd Decision –Making5.1 Maps5.2 CLUP
5.3 CDP5.4 By Laws and Ordinances6. ConclusionList of TablesList of Figures
CHAPTER 1. IntroductionNested within the larger Pampanga River Basin (7,978 km2), the AngatRiver is the largest river located in the province of Bulacan and lies 40kilometers north of Manila. The watershed area is bounded by Umiray River inthe northeast, the Kanan River in the southeast and the Marikina River in thesouth. It is approximately 153 kilometres long with a catchment area of 1085km2 and estimated volume of 8.6 million cubic meters collecting run-off from itsmain tributaries, Matulid and Maputi rivers (JICA 2002).According to the DENR’s catchment scale , the Angat River is defined asan inter-regional watershed. The Angat River flows westerly beginning in theSierra Madre mountains through the lowland plains of Bulacan, into the AngatReservoir and finally into Manila Bay (JICA 2011). Given its size and location,the Angat River Basin encompasses a number of upstream and downstream usesvital to the province of Bulacan, as well as Metro Manila. In addition, the AngatRiver supplies the diversion waters for Ipo and Bustos dams (Province ofBulacan 2008) and is a significant resource for Bulacan’s growing industrial andresource extraction sector (e.g., fishing, quarrying, mining and logging) (PPDO2010). Unpermitted uses are also significant, including the River’s importance tothe growing number of informal settlements resulting from slum relocation inManila and rapid population growth from the northern, more rural areas of theprovince (PPDO 2010).Intensive land use and fragmentation in the Philippines has prompted landuse planners to consider a strategic approach to conservation and developmentthat channels urban growth and preserved lands into more suitable locations. Inthe last decades of 20th century, with land use change and landscapefragmentation, nature conservation has changed from site protection toconservation of ecological networks. Landscape ecological principles have alsobeen integrated into nature conservation and landscape planning. New initiatives,including ecological networks, greenways, green infrastructure and ecologicalinfrastructure are emerging. They all emphasize the concept of spatialconnectivity, of an integrated functional network, managed for multiplepurposes, linking rural and urban environments (Walmsley, 2006; Ryan, 2004;Benedict, McMahon, 2001; Jongman, et al.,2004). Ecological infrastructure
planning represents a strategic approach to natural and physical resourceconservation that combines the efforts of previous conservation planningmethodologies and practices into a systematic framework that encompasseslarger and broader planning goals, particularly in watershed areas.In the study, ecological infrastructure planning approach is defined asdecision-making and actions on interconnecting networks of waterways,wetlands, woodlands, wildlife habitats and other natural areas; green ways,parks, and other conservation lands; working farms, ranches and forests, andwilderness and other open spaces that support native species, maintain naturalecological process.1.1. Project Objectives and Research ProblemsThis paper aims to do the following:1. Identify different ecological processes that affect landscape planning inriver basin.1. Provide a comprehensive understanding and description of ecologicalinfrastructure design approaches in river basin areas.2. Apply ecological infrastructure design approaches and planningprocess as guide in sustainable development of urbanizing watershedareas such as Angat; and3. Contribute to the integration of appropriate ecological infrastructureprinciples and strategies in local planning and decision- makingprocess in Angat River Basin.Statement of the ProblemAngat River and Watershed system display typical “tragedy of thecommons” problem” where landscape design is often neglected because of itspublic space nature. Angat River also faces greatest challenges onmanagement of freshwater. As the population increases and people resort nvironmentaldegradation take place, bringing down the quality and quantity of available
freshwater. All these are expected to have their impact on health andeconomic and social status of people.Another factor that contributes to freshwater degradation is the effectsof climate change . Climate change will directly impact the availability andquality of water resources, as seen in the aftermath of drought and typhoonevents of 2010, As projected by the Manila Observatory and the Departmentof Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Central Luzon is at high riskfor climate disasters such as increased typhoons, droughts caused by El Ninoand increases in temperature (Jose and Cruz 1999; Manila Observatory andDENR 2005). These in turn will manifest in changes in hydrological and cropwater regimes, shortages in reservoir inflow (Jose and Cruz 1999),deterioration of groundwater quality due to saltwater intrusion, changes instreamflow and groundwater recharge and the sedimentation of reservoirs(Rincon and Virtucio 2008:17). In light of the projected increase inpopulation, industrialization and water demand for both Bulacan and MetroManila in the next decade, these impacts are of grave concern given thecurrent stress of competing uses already apparent in the Angat Reservoir,particularly the Angat Afterbay Regulatory Dam area in the municipality ofBustos, Bulacan .At present, one of the most pressing issues in the area of AngatRiver basin are related to the use of land. Perfect examples includesindiscriminate agricultural conversion, dumping of solid and liquid wastes onwaterways, encroachment on banks by industries and settlements and illegalfish pen and quarrying.In the light of the above statement of the research problem, thisstudy will address the following primary research question: Given theparticular ecological characteristics of Angat Afterbay Regulatory Dam inAngat River basin and watershed ecosystem, how can an ecologicalinfrastructure planning approach be effective in addressing existing ecologicalrisks and sustainability of the watershed?It will also address the following secondary research questions:
1. What are the existing vulnerable infrastructure designs in the Angatriver basin.2. What are the current ecological risks affecting the Angat river basin andhow does it affect the current ecosystem in the area?3. What specific ecological infrastructure development proposals areappropriate for the future development in Angat river basin/watershed?1.2. Study Relevance and RationaleThe research will benefit not just the profession of landscapearchitecture but also Bulacan local government units (provincial andmunicipal) and their respective planning agencies through extensive and indepth study of the use of an ecological approach to the existing infrastructuredesign in the planning proces. This will also be helpful for other researchers,students and other professionals involve in design and planningenvironmental studies and natural resource management, particularly thoseinterested in alternative landscape design in watersheds and river basinareas.1.2.1AssumptionsThis research is informed by the following assumptions. Like theurban infrastructure providing social and economic services (such astransportation, gas, sewage, etc.) that support the potential urban growth, theEcological Infrastructure (EI) safeguards ecological services, protectingcultural heritages, providing visual and recreational experiences.Ecological infrastructure planning approach provide a viable approachto sustain air and water resources and contribute to health and quality of lifein watershed areas such as Angat River basin/watershed.
1.2.2. Scope and LimitationsThe study will focus on ecological infrastructurein urbanizingwatershed such as Angat River Basin, by studying various ecologicalsystems within the areas. It is not interested in analyzing processes, but onlyon the application of principles involve in ecological infrastructure planning.1.2.3. Hypothesis or Key Argument of the ResearchUrban development creates ecological problems and other gaps thatthe field of urban planning failed to address. Thus, the use of the EcologicalInfrastructure approach will be beneficial in addressing these gaps. First, theresearch will conduct a data gap analysis to identify the relevant biophysical,infrastructure and socioeconomic information in and around Angatwatershed. Then an ecological infrastructure planning approach will beapplied to fill in the gaps created by urban development through itsapplication in the Angat River Watershed. In other words, it is argued thatthe ecological infrastructure planning approach provides a positivealternative design to urban form and growth patterns and safeguards asustainable ecosystem essential for the livability of the area and the health ofits people.1.3. Conceptual-Analytical FrameworkSustainable urban planning and design which is within the purview ofenvironmental planning proceeds from the development of goals andobjectives, resulting from the inventory and analysis of environmentalresources including their ecological characteristics. The goals and objectivesare directed at efforts and activities (or plans) towards achievement ofsustainable development.The process is characterized by optimumenhancement or conservation, protection, preservation, improvement andenvironmental rehabilitation of a particular resource. In practice, one of its
good features has been the stakeholders’ engagement where socio-culturaldimensions are given importance in the process.The strategy as well as advocacies for more sustainable planningand design has been furthermore informed by the prevailing mode ofthinking in environmental resource use and planning in the last decades orso. Maximizing or exploiting the resource consciously or un-consciously,has been the mode; unsustainable infrastructure design therefore becomesthe rule rather than the exception. Designs are more often than not unsystemic, promote curative components rather than preventive and are notimpact-oriented. Hence, environmental risks are developed or increased.At a micro-setting, a sustainable urban planning and design can beinitiated or pursued. However, analyses of various components are requiredto undertake it. Initially, a trans-boundary assessment of the environmentalprocesses is carried out within the setting, including among others, land use,human settlement, recreation, etc. Trans-boundary assessment is a uniquefeature using watershed approach as resources are not unique to a singlepolitical or geographic boundary. Although there is site-specific planninginvolved, it is consciously undertaken in consideration of the larger scale orcontext. Further, new technologies that will be introduced in the design areconsidered or evaluated from the ecological, natural resource, technical,social, economic and institutional standpoints.ANGAT WATERSHEDECOSYSTEM ECOLOGICAL RISKSUNSUSTAINABLEINFRASTRUCTUREPLANNING AND DESIGN Ecological characteristics: biodiversity hydrology geology landuse : humansettelements, tourism andrecreation, cultural identity ECOLOGICALINFRASTRUCTUREPLANNINGSUSTAINABLE URBANPLANNING AND DESIGN
Definition of Terms Ecological Infrastructure (EI)- Open space in urbanised areas,including all undeveloped sites such as parks, riparian areas,greenways, and urban forests, helps to create healthy andsustainable urban environments. These sites perform numerousfunctions similar to those found in natural ecosystems. An openspace network provides habitat for urban wildlife, offersrecreational and alternative transportation opportunities for urbandwellers, and facilitates storm water, infiltration which is importantin ground water recharge and flood prevention (Girling andHelphand 1997). The open space network can provide a naturalalternative to the traditional infrastructure system of storm sewers,treatment plants, and concrete structures. This approach to openspace is known as "ecological infrastructure." Security pattern (SP)- an approach to identify and establish EI,which is based on the theory and methodology of landscape ecologyand also the relationship between landscape process and pattern. Ecology- is the scientific study of the relations that livingorganisms have with respect to each other and their naturalenvironment. Ecosystem- is defined by the network of interactions amongorganisms, and between organisms and their environment. Ecosystem services- services provided by the ecosystem like waterdelivery , water purifications, filtration and storage. Ecosystem Management-is a process that aims to conserve majorecological services and restore natural resources while meeting thesocioeconomic, political and cultural needs of current and futuregenerations Biodiversity- is the degree of variation of life forms within a givenecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. acteristics of the landscape and its hydrology is required to
identify where natural environments could be restored andmaintained to provide important services and benefits to localpopulations. Infrastructure- the location and condition of human builtenvironments can assist with identifying opportunities forecological investments. Socioeconomic- demographic and economic information couldprovide insights for the suitability of ecological infrastructurewithin a particular context.1.4. Review of related literatureThis section provides the framework of the present study. Articles citedhere focus on emerging paradigm and concepts that influence sustainable designin landscape architecture.IntroductionEcosystems are vulnerable to the negative impacts of various factorsparticularly the human activities and the increasing negative man-environmentinteractions. For purposes of common understanding, fragile or vulnerableecosystems are those systems that face the risk of losing their stability due toan external impact. Studies have shown that although there are ecosystemsthat are more vulnerable than the others, the richest ecosystems like thewetlands, coastal areas and tropical forests are the most vulnerable. In recenttimes, the one factor that has put these ecosystems and other resources (waterincluded) in increased vulnerability is climate change. Climate change hasnegatively impacted freshwater availability in some regions of the world. Infact, in a recent report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC), in Asia, freshwater availability is projected to decrease in Central,South, East and Southeast Asia by the 2050s; coastal areas will be at risk dueto increased flooding; death rate from disease associated with floods and
droughts expected to rise in some regions due to global changes in climate.(Source: IPCC 2007, Summary for Policymakers, in Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II tothe Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange, Cambridge University Press, Camb)Watershed, reservoirs and watershed managementWatersheds are those land areas that that deliver run-off, sediment, and watersoluble substances to a major river and its tributaries. Reservoirs, on the otherhand, are those areas that are large and deep, human-created body of standingfresh water often built behind a dam. Darghouth and others (2008) of theWorld Bank defined a watershed as the area that drains to a common outlet. Itis the basic building block for land and water planning.However, thisdefinition overlooked the people or communities and their socio-economicactivities, which according to Thapa (2001) is “the prime matter of concern ofwatershed management endeavours”.A more complete definition ofwatershed, according to him, would include both a biophysical and socioeconomic unit comprising all natural resources, people and their socioeconomic activities within the confines of the drainage divide.Darghouth and others further wrote that:“Degradation of watersheds in recent decades has brought thelong-term reduction of the quantity and quality of land and waterresources, as shown in the cases of Lesotho and Morocco. Changes inwatersheds have resulted from a range of natural and anthropogenicfactors, including natural soil erosion, changes in farming systems, overabstraction of water, overgrazing, deforestation, and pollution. Thecombination of environmental costs and socioeconomic impacts hasprompted investment in watershed management in many developingcountries.”
Traditionally, dev
CHAPTER 1. Introduction Nested within the larger Pampanga River Basin (7,978 km2), the Angat River is the largest river located in the province of Bulacan and lies 40 kilometers north of Manila. The watershed area is bounded by Umiray River in the northeast, the Kanan River in t
4.3.1 Age and the Ecological Footprint 53 4.3.2 Gender and the Ecological Footprint 53 4.3.3 Travelling Unit and the Ecological Footprint 54 4.3.4 Country of Origin and Ecological Footprint 54 4.3.5 Occupation, Education, Income and the EF 55 4.3.6 Length of Stay and Ecological Footprint 55 4.4 Themes of Ecological Resource Use 56
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