C2 Revision Booklet - Stockgrn.bham.sch.uk
Name:Teacher:EXAM DATE:
Three states of matterEverything is made of matter.There are three states of matter;solids, liquids and gases.These three states of matter are describedby a simple model called the particle model. Inthis model, the particles are represented bysmall solid spheres. The model can be used toexplain how the particles are arranged and howthey move in solids, liquids and gases.In a solid, the particles:- Have a regular arrangement- Are very close together- Vibrate about fixed positionsIn a liquid, the particles:- Have a random arrangement- Are close together- Flow around each otherIn a gas, the particles:- Have a random arrangement- Are much further apart- Move very quickly in all directions.The particle model islimited as:‐ There are no forcesrepresented betweenthe spheres.‐ All the particles arerepresented asspheres.‐ The spheresrepresented are solidand inelastic.Changing statesWhen a substance changes state, e.g. from solid to liquid:- The particles themselves stay the same- The way the particles are arranged changes- The way the particles move changes.A pure substance will melt and freeze at the same point (melting point) andboil and condense at the same point (boiling point).
Changing states (continued)The amount of energy required for a substance to change state depends onthe amount of energy required to overcome the forces of attractionbetween the particles.The stronger the force of attraction:- The greater the amount of energy needed to overcome them.- The higher the melting and boiling points will be.Substances that have a high melting point due to their strong bonds includeionic compounds, metallic compounds and giant covalent compounds.In substances which contain simple molecules:- The bonds within the molecules are strong covalent bonds.- The forces of attraction are much weaker.- Only a little energy is needed to overcome the forces between themolecules, so the melting and boiling points are relatively low.This explains why water has low melting and boiling points. Water has strongcovalent bonds between its atoms, but very weak forces between eachmolecule.Identifying the state of a substance.The melting and boiling point of a substance can be used to identify itsstate at a given temperature. The table below shows the melting points andboiling points of some group 7 elements.Boiling point (0C)ElementMelting point ne1141840It is generally said that room temperature is around 25 C. So, if all of theabove elements were at room temperature, we can see whether they aresolid, liquid or gas. Fluorine and Chlorine will be gases because both of theirmelting and boiling points are below 250C. Bromine will be a liquid because250C is in between its melting point and boiling point.
State symbolsChemical equations are used to sum up what happens in reactions. Statesymbols how the state of each substance involved.State symbol State of substance(s)Solid(l)Liquid(g)Gas(aq)Aqueous (dissolved in water)For example, when solid magnesium ribbon is added to an aqueous solution ofhydrogen chloride (hydrochloric acid):- A reaction takes place- A solution of magnesium chloride is produced and hydrogen gas is givenoff.This can be summed up in a symbol equation:Mg(s) HCl(aq) MgCl(aq) H2(g)Quick test!1. What does the state symbol (l) indicate?2. What does the state symbol (aq) indicate?3. How do the particles in a gas move?4. Why do ionic compounds have high melting points?5. State 3 limitations of the particle model.
Ionic bondsIons are formed when atoms gain orlose electrons, giving them an overallcharge. Ions have a complete outerIonic compounds arearranged in a ‘lattice’, wherethe ions are in a regularpattern.shell of electrons (the same electronicstructure as the noble gases).Ionic bonding involves the transfer ofelectrons from a metal to a non-metal.Metals always lose electrons, andnon-metals always gain electrons in ionic bonding.The metal becomes positively charged. For example, Magnesium loses 2electrons to become Mg2 .The non-metal becomes negatively charged. For example, Oxygen gains 2electrons to become O2-.The ionic bond is a strong electrostatic force of attraction between thepositive and negative ions, a bit like north and south poles of a magnetattracting.Properties of ionic compoundsIonic compounds are giant structures of ions. They are held together bystrong forces of attraction (electrostatic forces) that act in all directionsbetween oppositely charged particles.In your exams, you must know the following properties of ionic compounds: They have high melting and boiling points, because the ionic bonds arevery strong and requires a lot of energy to break. They DO NOT conduct electricity when solid, because the ions cannotmove. They DO conduct electricity when molten (melted) or dissolved inwater, because the charged particles are free to move about and carrytheir charge.
Examples of ionic compoundsIn your exams, you will likely get questions on how metals will bond with nonmetals. Below are examples of answers to help.Sodium forms an ionic compound with chlorine. Sodium belongs to group 1 of thePeriodic table. It has one electron in itsouter shell. Chlorine belongs to group 7 of thePeriodic table. It has 7 electrons in it’souter shell. It is easier for Sodium to lose 1electron than to gain 7 electrons (to have a noble gas electronconfiguration). It is easier for Chlorine to gain 1 electron than to lose7 electrons. Sodium transfers its outer electron onto Chlorine’s outer shell. The atoms become the ions Na and Cl-. There is now a force ofattraction between them, and they bond together to form NaCl. Chlorine always comes as a molecule of 2 Chlorine atoms, so 2 Sodiumatoms are needed to fill both of the Chlorine’s outer electron shells.Magnesium forms an ionic compound with Oxygen. Magnesium belongs to group 2 of thePeriodic table. It has 2 electron in itsouter shell. Oxygen belongs to group 6 of thePeriodic table. It has 6 electrons in it’souter shell. It is easier for Magnesium to lose 2electrons than to gain 6 electrons (to have a noble gas electronconfiguration). It is easier for Oxygen to gain 2 electron than to lose6 electrons. Magnesium transfers 2 outer electrons onto Oxygen’s outer shell. The atoms become the ions Mg2 and O2-. There is now a force ofattraction between them, and they bond together to formMgO. Oxygen always comes as a molecule of 2 Oxygen atoms, so 2Magnesium atoms are needed to fill both of the Oxygen’s outerelectron shells.
Quick test!1. What is an ion?2. Why so metals form positively charged ions?3. The ionic compound potassium chloride contains potassium ions (K andchloride ions (Cl-). What is the formula of potassium chloride?4. Why do ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten?Metallic bondingMetallic bonding occurs in metallic elements, such as copper or iron, as wellas alloys such as stainless steel.Metals have a giant structure in which the electrons in the outer shell aredelocalised; not bound to one atom so can move freely through the structureof the metal).This produces a regular arrangement (lattice) of positive ions held togetherby electrostatic attraction to the delocalised electrons.A metallic bond is the attraction between the positive ions and thedelocalised negatively charged electrons.
Properties of metalsMetallic bonds are very strong and most metals have high melting and boilingpoints. This means they are useful structural materials.The delocalised electrons can move around freely and transfer energy. Thismeans they are great conductors of heat and electricity, which is why weuse metals in saucepans, or electrical circuits.The particles in pure metals have a regular arrangement. However, thismeans the layers (look at the diagram in the previous box) are able slideover each other, which means the metals can be bent into shape (malleable).Traditionally, copper is used to make water pipes as they are unreactive (sowon’t rust) and they can be easily bent into shape.MetalAluminiumUsesHigh-voltage powercables, furniture,drinks cans, foilCopperElectrical wiring, waterpipes, saucepansJewellery, electricaljunctionsGoldPropertiesCorrosion resistant,ductile (made intowires), malleable, goodconductivity.Ductile, malleable, goodconductivityDuctile, shiny, goodconductivity.AlloysMost metal objects are made from alloys – mixtures that contain a metaland at least one other element.Pure metals are too soft and malleable for many uses. In alloys, the addedelement distorts the regular layers of a pure metal, so the layers cannoteasily slide over each other. This means the alloys are stronger and harderthan pure metals.We know of the most common alloy (steel), but most gold jewellery is madeof an alloy of gold, silver, zinc and copper. Pure gold would become easilytarnished and damaged as jewellery, so it is alloyed to make it stronger.
SteelSteel is a very useful alloy made fromiron and carbon. Iron oxide can bereduced (removal of oxygen) in a blastfurnace to produce iron.Molten iron from a blast furnace contains roughly 96% iron and 4%impurities, including mostly carbon and a little bit of phosphorus and silica.Because of these impurities, the iron is very brittle (easily breaks orshatters) and has limited uses. To produce pure iron, all of its impuritieshave to be removed.The atoms in pure iron are arranged in layers that can slide over each other,making it soft and malleable. Again, this has limited uses, as it is usually toosoft for practical uses.The properties of iron can be changed by mixing it with a small amount ofcarbon to make steel. There are 2 different types of carbon steel; highcarbon steel (with lots of carbon) and low carbon steel (with a little bit ofcarbon). There is also the more well-known stainless steel. High carbon steel is hard and strong. Low carbon steel is soft and malleable. Stainless steel contains chromium and nickel and is hard and resistantto corrosion.Other useful alloysPure gold, copper and aluminium are too soft for many uses. They are mixedwith small amounts of similar metals to make them harder. Aluminium alloys combine low density with high strength and are usedto make aeroplanes. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. It has a bright gold colour and isused to make statues and decorative objects. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc that is hard-wearing and resistantto corrosion. It is used to make taps, door fitting and instruments.
Quick test!1. Describe what a metallic bond is.2. Why is copper a good material for water pipes?3. What is an alloy?4. Why are alloys more useful than pure metals?5. Give two useful properties that stainless steel has but pure iron doesnot have.Covalent bondingA covalent bond it a shared pair of electronsbetween non-metals. These bonds can occur innon-metallic elements, such as oxygen (O2), or ofcompounds of these elements, such as water (H2O).Chlorine has 7 electrons in its outer shell –it needs to gain 1.Chlorine shares its 7th electron withanother atom of chlorine. This gives eachchlorine an extra electron in its outerelectron shell, making each chlorine atomhave a complete outer electron shell.
Examples of covalent compoundsSimple moleculesSimple molecules contain a relatively small-number of non-metal atomsjoined together by covalent bonds. The molecules have no overall electricalcharge, so cannot conduct electricity.Some examples include: Oxygen (O2), Chlorine (Cl2), Methane (CH4), Carbondioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).It is a common misconception that water conducts electricity. It doesn’t!Tap water contains free moving metal ions, such as potassium andmagnesium, which conduct electricity.Substances that consist of simple molecules usually have a low melting andboiling points. This is because the intermolecular forces in betweenmolecules are very weak, which can be overcomewith very little energy.The larger the molecules are, the stronger theintermolecular forces will be. This means thatlarger molecules have higher melting and boiling points.Take group 7 for example. All group 7 elements come as covalent molecules,but their molecules get larger as you go down the group. Fluorine andChlorine are gases at room temperature, Bromine is a liquid at roomtemperature and Iodine is a solid at room temperature.
Giant covalent structuresAll the atoms in giant covalent structures are linked together by strongcovalent bonds. These bonds bust be broken for the substances to melt orboil. This means that all giant covalent structures have very high meltingand boiling points.DiamondDiamond is a giant covalent structure. It is purely made from carbon atoms.It is an allotrope of carbon (different form of carbon.) It has a giant, rigid covalentstructure (lattice). Each carbon atom forms four strongcovalent bonds with each carbon atom. All the strong covalent bonds meanthat it is very hard, with a very highmelting point. There are no charged particles, so itdoesn’t conduct electricity.GraphiteGraphite is also a giant covalent structure. It is also purely made fromcarbon atoms. It is a different allotrope of carbon (different form ofcarbon). Each carbon atom forms 3 covalentbonds with over carbon atoms. This results in a layered, hexagonal structure. The layers are held together by weakintermolecular forces. This means that they layers can slide past each other, making graphitesoft and slippery. One electron from each carbon atom is delocalised, which allowsgraphite to conduct heat and electricity.
Silicon dioxide (Silica, SiO2)Silicon dioxide has a lattice structure similar to diamond. Each oxygen atom is joined to twosilicon atoms. Each silicon atom is joined to four oxygen atoms.Quick test!1. What is a covalent bond?2. Why does hydrogen chloride (HCl) have a low boiling point?3. How does the size of a simple molecule affect the strength of theintermolecular forces between molecules?4. Describe the structure of a diamond.5. Explain how graphite can conduct electricity.
GrapheneGraphene is another allotrope of carbon you will need to know about foryour upcoming exams.It is just a single layer of graphite – hexagonal structure of carbon atomswith 3 covalent bonds on each, and 1 delocalised electron per atom. It is very strong It is good conductor of heatand electricity Graphene is almost transparent,making it ideal for phone touchscreens.FullerenesCarbon can also form molecules known as fullerenes, which contain differentnumbers of carbon atoms.Fullerene molecules have hollow shapes, including tubes, balls and cages.The first to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene, C60. It consists of 60 Carbon atoms The atoms are joined togetherin a series of hexagons and pentagons. It is the most symmetrical, andtherefore most stable,fullerene.Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes with some very usefulproperties. These fullerenes can be used: To deliver drugs in the body In lubricants As catalysts For reinforcing materials, e.g.the frames of tennis rackets, sothat they are strong but stilllightweight.
PolymersPolymers consist of very large molecules. Plastics are synthetic (man-made)polymers.The atoms within the polymer molecules are held together by strongcovalent bonds. The intermolecular forces between the large polymermolecules are also quite strong.This means that polymers are solid at room temperature.Poly(ethene), commonly known aspolythene, is produced when lots ofethene molecules are joined togetherin an addition polymerisation reaction.It is cheap and strong, and is used tomake plastic bottles and bags.EthenePoly(ethene)Sizes of particles and their propertiesThis is for triple Science ONLYCoarse particles (often called ‘dust’ by scientists) have a diameter between1 x 10-5m (0.00001m) and 2.5 x 10-6m (0.0000025m). Fine particles have adiameter between 100nm (1 x 10-7 or 0.0000001m) and 2500nm (2.5 x 10-6 or0.0000025m). Nanoparticles have a diameter between 1nm (1 x 10-9 or0.000000001m) and 100nm (1 x 10-7 or 0.0000001m).Nanoscience is the study of these very small structures. Small particleshave a high surface area to volume ratio. Changing the size of particles hasa dramatic effect on this ratio. For example, if the length of side of a cubedecreases by a factor of 10: The surface area decreases by 10x10 100 The volume decreases by 10x10x10 1000 The surface area to volume ratio increases tenfold.This is important for catalysts; having a large SA improves their effects.
NanoparticlesThis is for triple Science ONLYNanoparticles contain only a few hundred atoms. They can be manipulated,so materials can be developed that have new and specific properties. Theproperties of nanoparticles are different to the properties of the samematerials in bulk, e.g. nanoparticles are more sensitive to heat, light andmagnetism.In nanoparticles, the atoms can be placed into exactly the right position, sosmaller quantities are needed to achieve the required properties/effects.Nanoparticles can be used in sun cream. They provide better skin coverageand therefore more effective protection from the Sun’s harmful UV rays.However, concerns remain that these nanoparticles are so small that theycould get into and damage human cells or cause problems to theenvironment.Research into nanoparticles is leading to the development of: New drug delivery systems Synthetic skin for burn victims Computers and technology Catalysts for fuel cells. Stronger and lighter construction materials New cosmetics and deodorants Fabrics that prevent the growth of bacteria.
Quick test!1. What is special about the structure of graphene?2. Which is the most stable fullerene?3. How big are nanoparticles?4. What potential problems could nanoparticles cause?Practice exam questionsThis is FOR ALL ABILITIES1. Complete the following table (4 marks):State symbol:(s)(l)Meaning:gas(aq)2. Describe how the particles are arranged in a (3 marks):Solid:Liquid:Gas:
Practice exam questionsThis is FOR ALL ABILITIES3. The table below shows the charge of some metal ions and non-metalions.Metal ionsLithium, Li Strontium, Sr2 Potassium, K Magnesium, Mg2 Non-metal ionsOxide, O2Chloride, ClBromide, BrSulfide, S2-a) Explain why lithium has a charge of 1 (2 marks).b) Explain why oxygen has a charge of 2- (2 marks).c) Use the table above to suggest the formula of:- Strontium chloride:- Potassium bromide:- Magnesium sulfide:4. Draw a diagram to show the electronic structure of a sodium ion and achloride ion. Draw the outer shell only (4 marks).5. Why is sodium chloride a solid at room temperature (2 marks)?
Practice exam questionsThis is FOR ALL ABILITIES6. Explain why lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity (2marks).7. Explain why aluminium is a good material to use for aeroplane parts.You will need to discuss the structure of aluminium in your answer (4marks).8. Describe what an alloy is (2 marks).9. Explain why steel is used as a building material rather than cast iron (3marks).10. Describe how electrons are involved in the following 3 bonds (3marks):Ionic:Covalent:Metallic:11. Describe how oxygen forms a diatomic molecule (O2) (3 marks).
Practice exam questionsThis is FOR ALL ABILITIES1. Draw the dot and cross diagram of Hydrogen chloride (HCl) (3 marks).2. Explain why water has a low melting and boiling point (3 marks)3. Suggest why iodine has a higher melting and boiling point compared tochlorine (2 marks).4. Explain why most covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity (2marks).5. Describe the difference between the properties of diamond andgraphite. You will need to discuss their structures to get full marks. (4marks).
Practice exam questionsThis is FOR ALL ABILITIES1. Take a look at the melting points and boiling points below.SubstanceWaterPotassium bromideIronMelting point (0C)07341538Boiling point (0C)10014352862a) Which of these would be a liquid at room temperature (250C)? (1 mark)b) Which of these would be a liquid at 10000C? (1 mark)c) What does the table suggest about the strength of metallic bondscompared to the strength of ionic bonds? (2 marks)d) Does the above table prove that covalent bonds are weaker than ionicbonds? (3 marks)2. Describe what an allotrope is. Give an example (2 marks)3. Explain how polythene is made from the monomer ethene (2 marks).4. Suggest why fullerenes can be used to deliver drugs in the body (2marks).
Practice exam questionsThis is FOR TRIPLE SCIENCE ONLY1. Cube A has a surface area to volume ratio of 0.21nm. Another cube, cube B,has sides that are ten times the length of cube A.a) What is the surface area to volume ratio of cube B?Surface area to volume ratio: nmb) Material X has particles a similar size to cube A, and material Y hasparticles a similar size to cube B. Both materials are made from the samecompound. Which material would you need more of in order to catalyse areaction effectively? Explain your answer (3 marks).2. The table below lists properties of some rtiesForms a cage-like structure that can be used to trap smallmolecules. Light and strong.Responds to touch, temperature and humidity. Changes colour inresponse to the concentration of other compounds in solution.SilverAntibacterial.Suggest, with reasoning, which materials would be used for the followingapplications. You can to use each material more than once, and you do not need touse every material (6 marks).Delivering drugs to specific parts of the body.Material:Reason:Sterilising water in a water filter.Material:Reason:Strengthening lightweight sports equipment, such as tennis racket strings.Material:Reason:
structure as the noble gases). Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal. Metals always lose electrons, and non-metals always gain electrons in ionic bonding. The metal becomes positively charged. For example, Magnesium loses 2 electrons
Prepared for District 5 Toastmasters By Mark Kramer, DTM Original Version July 2007 1st Revision June 2008 2nd Revision November 2008 3rd Revision June 2009 4th Revision May 2010 5th Revision May 2011 6th Revision May 2012 7th Revision May 2013 8th Revision May 2014 9th Revision Nov
James Wilkie Director of RIS also Chief Executive Officer of Alta Innovations Ltd Direction and leadership for RIS, Alta Innovations and Birmingham Research Park j.h.wilkie@bham.ac.uk 45712 Lesley Hewitt PA to Director of RIS l.a.hewitt@bham.ac.ukSupport to Director an
YEAR 5 EASTER REVISION BOOKLET This booklet is an optional revision aid for the Summer Exam Name: Maths Teacher: Revision List for Summer Exam Topic Junior Maths Bk 3 Place Value Chapter 3 Special Numbers Squares, square roots, cubes, cube roots, factors, multiples, primes
Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde—Revision Jekyll and Hyde Revision Activity ooklet. Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde—Revision Revision ooklet Instructions This revision booklet is intended to help you revise the novel of Jekyll and
2016 national curriculum tests Key stage 2 [BLANK PAGE] This page is intentionally blank. Contents Booklet 2B 3 Booklet 5B 15 Booklet 8C 31 Booklet 9C 47 Booklet 12P 63 Booklet 14P 75. Sene n Bet 2B First name Middle name Last name Date of birth Day Month Year School name 2016 national urriculum ets Key e 2 53208. ST002B June16. 3. Page . 02 of .
ENGLISH (MY PALS) I-SCIENCE Revision Revision Class Revision ART & CRAFT Class AKHLAQ FIQH Revision AQIDAH Class SEERAH Revision ARABIC EJAAN Revision COMPUTER Revision SHAPING MATHS FINAL SEMESTER EXAMINATION TIMETABLE 2014 - PRIMARY 1 IBN RUSYD JAWI Break Dhuha Iqra' & Hafazan Revisio
psa revision knee zimmer-biomet persona revision knee zimmer-biomet nexgen legacy lcck revision knee zimmer-biomet vanguard revision knee depuy attune revision knee depuy lcs complete revision knee3 stryker triathlon smith & nephew legion revision knee medacta
Introduction to Academic Writing This study pack is designed to take about 50 minutes. It will give you an introduction to academic writing, sharing the most important principles that will guide you through writing during your degree at UCL. It was put together by the Writing Lab, which is the section of the Academic Communication Centre(ACC) that serves students from Bartlett; Psychology .
