Module 1.0: Health Physics Fundamentals
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSIntroductionWelcome to Module 1.0 of the General Health Physics Practices for Fuel Cycle Facilities DirectedSelf-Study Course! This is the first of seven modules in this self-study course. The purpose ofthis module is to provide basic fundamentals of radiation and terms that are common to thehealth physics and nuclear industries. This self-study module is designed to assist you inaccomplishing the learning objectives listed at the beginning of the module. There are ninelearning objectives in this module. The module has self-check questions and an activity to helpyou assess your understanding of the concepts presented in the module.Before You BeginIt is recommended that you have access to the following materials: Trainee GuideComplete the following prerequisites: There are no prerequisites to this module.How to Complete this Module1. Review the learning objectives.2. Read each section within the module in sequential order.3. Complete the self-check questions and activities within this module.4. Check off the tracking form as you complete the self-check questions and/or activitywithin the module.5. Contact your administrator as prompted for a progress review meeting.6. Contact your administrator as prompted for any additional materials and/or specificassignments.7. Complete all assignments related to this module. If no other materials or assignmentsare given to you by your administrator, you have completed this module.8. Ensure that you and your administrator have dated and initialed your progress on thetracking form.9. Go to the next assigned module.
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MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSTABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction . iBefore You Begin . iHow to Complete this Module . iLEARNING OBJECTIVES . 1-1ATOMIC STRUCTURE. 1-3Self-Check Questions 1-1 . 1-5DEFINITIONS . 1-7Radiation . 1-7Ionization . 1-7Ionizing Radiation . 1-8Non-ionizing Radiation . 1-8Stable and Unstable Atoms . 1-8Radioactivity . 1-8Radioactive Material. 1-9Radioactive Contamination . 1-9Radioactive Decay. 1-9Radioactive Half-life. 1-9Self-Check Questions 1-2 . 1-10THE BASIC TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION . 1-13Alpha Particles . 1-13Beta Particles . 1-14Gamma Rays/X-Rays . 1-14Neutrons . 1-15Self-Check Questions 1-3 . 1-18RADIOLOGICAL UNITS . 1-21Radiation . 1-21Radioactivity Units . 1-21Contamination Units. 1-22Self-Check Questions 1-4 . 1-23EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON CELLS. 1-25Self-Check Questions 1-5 . 1-26ACUTE AND CHRONIC RADIATION EXPOSURE . 1-27Acute Radiation Exposure. 1-27Chronic Radiation Exposure. 1-27Self-Check Questions 1-6 . 1-28CONTRIBUTIONS TO U.S. POPULATION DOSE FROM VARIOUS RADIATION SOURCES . 1-29Self-Check Questions 1-7 . 1-30ALARA PROGRAM . 1-31Basic Exposure Reduction Concepts . 1-31Radiological Postings . 1-32Self-Check Questions 1-8 . 1-34USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physicsi10/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSActivity 1 – Health Physics Fundamentals . 1-36Progress Review Meeting Form. 1-40MODULE SUMMARY . 1-42LIST OF TABLESTable 1-1. Description of Basic Particles of the Atom . 1-4Table 1-2. Characteristics of Basic Types of Ionizing Radiation. 1-17LIST OF FIGURESFigure 1-1.Figure 1-2.Figure 1-3.Figure 1-4.Figure 1-5.Basic Particles of the Atom . 1-3Ionization . 1-8Radioactive Decay . 1-9Contributions to U.S. Population Dose From Various Radiation Sources . 1-29Example of a Radiological Posting . 1-33USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physicsii10/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSLEARNING OBJECTIVES1.1Upon completion of this module, you will be able to recognize basic fundamentals ofradiation and terms that are common to the health physics and nuclear industries.1.1.1 Identify the three basic particles that make up an atom.1.1.2 Define the following terms commonly used by health physics professionals: Radiation Ionization Ionizing Radiation Non-ionizing Radiation Stable and Unstable Atoms Radioactivity Radioactive Material Radioactive Contamination Radioactive Decay Half-life1.1.3 Identify the five basic types of ionizing radiation.1.1.4 Identify the units most commonly used to measure radiation, contamination, andradioactivity.1.1.5 Identify the possible effects of radiation on cells.1.1.6 Distinguish between acute and chronic radiation exposure.1.1.7 Identify contributions to the U.S. population dose from various radiation sources.1.1.8 Identify the ALARA concept, basic exposure reduction concepts, and the purpose ofradiological postings.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-110/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
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MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSLearning ObjectiveWhen you finish this section, you will be able to:1.1.1 Identify the three basic particles that make up an atom.ATOMIC STRUCTUREThe basic unit of matter is the atom. The central portion of the atom is the nucleus, whichconsists of protons and neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus similar to the way planets orbitour sun.The three basic particles of the atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons. See Figure 1-1,Basic Particles of the Atom. For a description of the basic particles of the atom, see Table 1-1.Figure 1-1. Basic Particles of the AtomUSNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-310/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSTable 1-1. Description of Basic Particles of the AtomProtonNeutronElectronLocationIn the nucleus of an atomIn the nucleus of theatomIn orbit around thenucleus of an atomChargePositive ( )No chargeNegative (-)Facts The number of protons inthe nucleus determines theelement and atomicnumber If the number of protons inan atom changes, theelement changesUSNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-4Have about thesame mass as aprotonAre very small(about 1/1800 themass of a proton)10/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSSelf-Check Questions 1-1INSTRUCTIONS:Complete the following questions. Answers are located inthe answer key section of the Trainee Guide.1.What are the three basic particles that make up an atom?2.Match the particles listed in column A to the characteristics listed in column B.Column BCharacteristicsColumn AParticlesA.ProtonB.NeutronC.1. No charge and located in thenucleus of the atom.2. Negative charge and orbitsaround the nucleus of an atom.Electron3. Positive charge and located inthe nucleus of the atom.You have completed this section.Please check off your progress on the tracking form.Go to the next section.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-510/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
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MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSLearning ObjectiveWhen you finish this section, you will be able to:1.1.2 Define the following terms commonly used by health physics professionals: Radiation Ionization Ionizing Radiation Non-ionizing Radiation Stable and Unstable Atoms Radioactivity Radioactive Material Radioactive Contamination Radioactive Decay Half-lifeDEFINITIONSThe following terms and definitions are commonly used by health physics professionalsinvolved in fuel cycle facility operations.RadiationEnergy in the form of particles or waves that can travel through space.IonizationThe process of removing electrons from atoms. Do not confuse ionization with radiation.Radiation is simply energy in motion. As a result of this energy, ionization may or may notoccur. If enough energy is supplied to remove electron(s) from the atom, the remaining atomhas a positive ( ) charge. The positively charged atom and the negatively charged electron arecalled an ion pair. Ions (or ion pairs) produced as a result of radiation exposure allow thedetection of radiation. See Figure 1-2, Ionization.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-710/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSFigure 1-2. IonizationIonizing RadiationEnergy (particles or rays) emitted from atoms that can cause ionization. The basic types ofionizing radiation are alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, and neutrons.Non-ionizing RadiationRadiation that does not have the amount of energy needed to ionize an atom with which itinteracts. Examples are radar waves, microwaves, and visible light. Although the word"radiation" can be used to mean ionizing or non-ionizing radiation, it is most often used tomean ionizing radiation.Stable and Unstable AtomsOnly certain combinations of neutrons and protons result in stable atoms.If there are too many or too few neutrons for a given number of protons, the resulting nucleuswill contain too much energy and will not be stable.The unstable atom will try to become stable by giving off excess energy in the form of particlesor electromagnetic waves (radiation). These unstable atoms are also known as radioactiveatoms.RadioactivityUnstable (or radioactive) atoms trying to become stable by emitting radiation in the form ofparticles or energy.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-810/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSRadioactive MaterialAny material containing unstable radioactive atoms that emit radiation.Radioactive ContaminationRadioactive material in an unwanted place. (There are certain places where radioactivematerial is beneficial). It is important to note here that exposure to radiation does not result incontamination of the worker. Radiation is a type of energy and contamination is a material.Radioactive DecayRadioactive decay is the process of radioactive atoms releasing radiation over a period of timeto try to become stable (non-radioactive). (Also known as disintegration.) See Figure 1-3,Radioactive Decay.Figure 1-3. Radioactive DecayRadioactive Half-lifeThe time it takes for one half the radioactive atoms present in a radioactive sample to decay.After seven half-lives the activity of an average radioactive sample will be less than 1% of theoriginal activity. Radioactive half-life of U-239 is 23.5 minutes Radioactive half-life of U-238 is 4,510,000,000 yearsThe amount of activity remaining after some number of half-lives can be calculated bymultiplying the original amount of activity by the factor where n is the number of half-lives thathave elapsed.12USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-910/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSSelf-Check Questions 1-2INSTRUCTIONS:Fill in the missing words in each statement. Answers arelocated in the answer key section of the Trainee Guide.Choose from the following words:decayelectromagnetic diation is energy in the form of particles or that can travel throughspace.2.The process of removing electrons from atoms is known as .3.The basic types of ionizing radiation are alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays,and .4.Radar waves, microwaves, and visible light are examples of radiation.5.Only certain combinations of neutrons and result in stable atoms.6.Unstable atoms are also known as atoms.7.is defined as unstable atoms trying to become stable by emittingradiation in the form of particles or energy.8.Radiation is a type of and contamination is a .9.Radioactive is the process of radioactive atoms releasing radiation over aperiod of time to try to become .10.After seven the activity of an average radioactive sample will be less than1% of the original activity.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1010/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSYou have completed this section.Please check off your progress on the tracking form.Go to the next section.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1110/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
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MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSLearning ObjectiveWhen you finish this section, you will be able to:1.1.3 Identify the five basic types of ionizing radiation.THE BASIC TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATIONThe basic types of ionizing radiation are alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, andneutrons.Alpha Particles Physical CharacteristicsA large mass positively charged. Consists of two protons, two neutrons, and noelectrons. Penetrating Power (Range)Deposit large amounts of energy in a short distance of travel. Travel through air onlyone to two inches. ShieldingMost particles are stopped by a few centimeters of air, a sheet of paper, or the deadlayer (outer layer) of skin. Biological HazardAn internal radiation hazard when alpha-emitting materials inhaled or ingested due todeposition of large amounts of energy. SourcesUranium, plutonium and most radioisotopes with atomic number 82.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1310/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSBeta Particles Physical CharacteristicsA small mass negatively charged. Penetrating Power (Range)Beta particles are emitted with energies that vary over a wide range; all deposit theirenergy in a relatively short distance of travel. Travel through air for high-energy betaparticles is ten to twelve feet. ShieldingMost particles are shielded by plastic, glass, metal foil, or safety glasses. Biological HazardCan be an internal hazard if beta-emitting materials are ingested or inhaled. Externally,higher-energy beta particles are potentially hazardous to the skin and eyes, but lowenergy beta particles present less of a hazard. Some beta sources can producemeasurable Bremsstrahlung. SourcesUranium decay products, tritium, carbon-14, Tc-99.Gamma Rays/X-Rays Physical CharacteristicsA wave that has neither mass nor electrical charge. Gamma rays originate within thenucleus of an atom. X-rays originate from the orbital electrons. Penetrating Power (Range)Because gamma/x-ray radiation has no charge and no mass, it has a very highpenetrating power.Travel several hundred feet in air. ShieldingBest shielded by dense materials, such as concrete, lead, or steel.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1410/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALS Biological HazardCan result in radiation exposure to the whole body. SourcesDecay products of natural uranium, x-ray machines.Neutrons Physical CharacteristicsNo electrical charge; mass about the same as a proton. Penetrating Power (Range)Because of the lack of a charge, neutrons have a relatively high penetrating ability andare difficult to stop.A direct interaction occurs as the result of a collision between a neutron and a nucleus.A charged particle or other ionizing radiation may be emitted during these interactions.Able to travel several hundred feet in air. ShieldingBest shielded by materials with a high hydrogen content, such as water. Biological HazardWhole body hazard due to high penetrating ability. SourcesThose used to calibrate instruments, such as americium–beryllium (Am-Be) andplutonium–beryllium (Pu-Be).Uranium hexafluoride (UF6) cylinders.There are several ways to produce neutrons. The ones that are most likely to be seen infuel cycle facilities are fissions and alpha–neutron (α,n) reactions. Fissions are notnormally seen in fuel cycle facilities because criticality accidents are strongly avoided.That leaves α,n reactions as the most common source of neutron radiation in fuel cyclefacilities. These reactions can occur when an alpha emitter is intimately mixed with alight element. The high-energy alpha particles can interact with the nucleus of the lightUSNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1510/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSelement and cause a neutron to be released. Examples are those sources used tocalibrate instruments, such as Am-Be and Pu-Be.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1610/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSTable 1-2 summarizes the characteristics of basic types of ionizing radiation.Table 1-2. Characteristics of Basic Types of Ionizing aracteristicsParticle( 2 charge)Particle(-1 charge)*Ray, Wave(no charge)PenetratingPower(Range)Very Low(1 to 2 inchesin air)HighHigh (several hundred(several hundred feet in air)feet in air)Shielding 1 inch ofLimited(10 to 12 feet inair, fewmillimeters inskin) Glass Metal foil Leadmaterials: Plastic Steel Waterair Outerlayer ofdead skin ClothingBiologicalHazardSourcesInternalUranium andplutoniumand mostradioisotopeswith atomicnumber 82 ConcreteParticle(no charge) Hydrogenous Concrete Safetyglasses PolyethyleneInternal/External Internal/External Externalskin, eyes(whole body)(whole body) Uranium Decay Those used todecayproducts ofcalibrateproductsnaturalinstruments such as:uranium Tritium americium Carbon-14 Sulfur-35 X-rayberylliummachines plutoniumberyllium Most Tc-99**radioactiveisotopes emitsecondaryphotons Uraniumhexafluoride (UF6)cylinders**** sometimes 1 charge, called beta-plus or positron** Tc-99 is often times a non-U containment in gaseous diffusion facilities.*** These neutron sources are referred to as (α,n) sources. An alpha particle is captured by alow-Z nucleus, which in turn decays by neutron emission.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1710/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSSelf-Check Questions 1-3INSTRUCTIONS:1.Complete the following questions. Answers are located inthe answer key section of the Trainee Guide.In the blank, identify the biological hazard of each type of ionizing radiation. Place an "I"for internal, an "E" for external or an "I/E" for both internal/external.A.Alpha particlesB.Beta particlesC.Gamma rays/X-raysD.NeutronsCircle the best multiple choice response.2.These are potentially hazardous to the skin and eyes.A.B.C.D.3.Best shielded by dense materials, such as concrete, lead, or steel.A.B.C.D.4.Alpha particlesBeta particlesGamma rays/x-raysNeutronsAlpha particlesBeta particlesGamma rays/x-raysNeutronsBest shielded by hydrogenous materials such as water.A.B.C.D.Alpha particlesBeta particlesGamma rays/x-raysNeutronsUSNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1810/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALS5.Deposits a large amount of energy in a short distance of travel.A.B.C.D.Alpha particlesBeta particlesGamma rays/x-raysNeutronsYou have completed this section.Please check off your progress on the tracking form.Go to the next section.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-1910/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
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MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSLearning ObjectiveWhen you finish this section, you will be able to:1.1.4 Identify the units most commonly used to measure radiation, contamination, andradioactivity.RADIOLOGICAL UNITSRadiationPer 10 CFR Part 20.1004, the following are units of radiation dose: Absorbed dose is the amount of radiation energy absorbed per unit mass. Quality factor is a weighting factor applied to account for the amount of biologicaldamage caused by different radiations. Dose equivalent mathematically is equal to absorbed dose multiplied by the qualityfactor. This relates the absorbed dose in human tissue to the effective biologicaldamage of the radiation. Gray (Gy) is the Systeme International (SI) unit of absorbed dose. One Gray is equal toan absorbed dose of 1 joule kilogram (100 rad). Rad is the common unit of absorbed dose, used in the US. One Rad is equal to 1/100thof a Gray (1 rad 0.01 Gray). One rad is equal to an absorbed dose of 100 ergs/gram. Sievert (Sv) is the SI unit of any of the quantities expressed as dose equivalent. Thedose equivalent in sieverts is equal to the absorbed dose in Gray multiplied by thequality factor (1 Sv 100 rem). Rem is the common unit of dose equivalent, used in the U.S. One Rem is equal to1/100th of a Seivert (1 rem 0.01 Sievert). The dose equivalent in rems is equal to theabsorbed dose in rads multiplied by the quality factor.Radioactivity Units Other units commonly used to measure radioactivity are disintegrations per minute,disintegrations per second, and counts per minute. Disintegrations per second (dps) describes the number of atoms disintegrating eachsecond in a radioactive source.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-2110/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALS Disintegrations per minute (dpm) describes the number of atoms disintegrating(decaying) each minute in a radioactive source. Counts per minute (cpm) represents the number of radiations detected per minute by aradiation detection instrument. Cpm can be converted to dpm by using a conversionfactor for the radiation instrument you are using.Per 10 CFR Part 20.1005, units of radioactivity are: Becquerel (Bq) is the SI unit for measuring radioactivity. One becquerel onedisintegration per second (s-1). Curie (Ci) is the common unit used in the U.S for measuring radioactivity. One curie 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second or Becquerels. 3.7 x 1010 becquerels 2.22 x 1012 disintegrations per minute.Activity is expressed in the unit of curies (Ci) or in the SI unit of becquerels (Bq), or theirmultiples, or disintegrations (transformations) per unit of time.Contamination UnitsContamination is activity per unit area or per unit volume, i.e., dpm/cm2 or dpm/cm3.Contamination is also frequently expressed as activity per detector surface area, e.g.dpm/100cm2 or dpm/63cm2.Consider a disk contaminated with 100 atoms that are radioactive. Suppose 20 atomsdisintegrate in one minute and the surface area is 20cm2. The level of contamination is 20dpm/20cm2 dpm/cm2.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-2210/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSSelf-Check Questions 1-4INSTRUCTIONS:1.2.Complete the following questions. Answers are located inthe answer key section of the Trainee Guide.Match the following units of radiation listed in column A with their equivalent in column B.Column ARadiation UnitsColumn BEquivalentA.Gray1. Absorbed dose in radsmultiplied by the qualityfactor (1 rem 0.01 sievert)B.Rad2. Absorbed dose in graysmultiplied by the qualityfactor (1 sievert 100 rem)C.Rem3. Absorbed dose of 1joule/kilogram (100 rad)D.Sievert4. Absorbed dose of 100ergs/gram or 0.01joule/kilogram (0.01 gray)Provide a brief description of each of the following units most commonly used to measureradioactivity.dpm –dps –cpm –USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-2310/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALS3.Fill in the missing word or formula to identify units of radioactivity.One one disintegration per second (s-1)One curie disintegrations per secondActivity is expressed in the special unit of or in the SI unit of , ortheir multiples, or disintegrations (transformations) per unit of time.You have completed this section.Please check off your progress on the tracking form.Go to the next section.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-2410/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSLearning ObjectiveWhen you finish this section, you will be able to:1.1.5 Identify the possible effects of radiation on cells.EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON CELLSIonizing radiation can potentially affect the normal operation of cells.The method by which radiation causes damage to any material is by ionization of atoms in thematerial. Some radiation damage is repaired by the cell. Some effects of radiation may not beobserved immediately following exposure. Examples of possible effects of radiation on cellsmay include cell killing, reproductive failure, or transformation to cancer cells.USNRC Technical Training CenterHealth Physics1-2510/10 Rev 4Directed Self-Study Course
MODULE 1.0: HEALTH PHYSICS FUNDAMENTALSSelf-Check Questions
There are no prerequisites to this module. How to Complete this Module 1. Review the learning objectives. 2. Read each section within the module in sequential order. 3. Complete the self-check questions and activities within this module. 4. Check off the tracking form as you complete the self-check questions and/or activity within the module. 5.
Teacher’s Book B LEVEL - English in school 6 Contents Prologue 8 Test paper answers 10 Practice Test 1 11 Module 1 11 Module 2 12 Module 3 15 Practice Test 2 16 Module 1 16 Module 2 17 Module 3 20 Practice Test 3 21 Module 1 21 Module 2 22 Module 3 25 Practice Test 4 26 Module 1 26 Module 2 27 Module 3 30 Practice Test 5 31 Module 1 31 Module .
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Advanced Placement Physics 1 and Physics 2 are offered at Fredericton High School in a unique configuration over three 90 h courses. (Previously Physics 111, Physics 121 and AP Physics B 120; will now be called Physics 111, Physics 121 and AP Physics 2 120). The content for AP Physics 1 is divided
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General Physics: There are two versions of the introductory general physics sequence. Physics 145/146 is intended for students planning no further study in physics. Physics 155/156 is intended for students planning to take upper level physics courses, including physics majors, physics combined majors, 3-2 engineering majors and BBMB majors.
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