Enhancing Grit In Elite Athletes Through Functional Imagery Training
ENHANCING GRIT IN ELITE ATHLETESTHROUGH FUNCTIONAL IMAGERYTRAININGbyJonathan RhodesA thesis submitted to University of Plymouth in partial fulfilment of therequirements for the degree ofDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHYSchool of PsychologyNovember 2019
COPYRIGHT STATEMENTThe copy of this thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone whoconsults it is understood to recognize that its copyright rests with its author and thatno quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be publishedwithout the author’s prior consent.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would like to thank everyone who has helped and inspired me through this complexand insightful time during my PhD. Importantly, the clubs, teams, coaches, athletes,and likeminded researchers have given me their time and trust, making an idea aproject, and the project findings have shaped a series of studies, that havedeveloped this thesis. To every participant, I am genuinely appreciative.I would especially like to thank my Director of Studies, Prof. Jon May, who hasprovided invaluable guidance and constantly pushed and supported me to explore avariety of projects. Additionally, Prof. Jackie Andrade’s insights and knowledge hasbeen of huge benefit. This thesis would not be possible without an excellentsupervisory team, and I will be forever grateful.Lastly, I am very fortunate to have a supportive and loving family who have goneabove and beyond for me. In particular, my wife Katie. At times I have beenobsessive and ruthless with my time because of my goals and I appreciate yourpatience and untiring positivity.
AUTHOR’S DECLARATIONAt no time during the registration for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy has theauthor been registered for any other University award without prior agreement ofthe Doctoral College Quality Sub-Committee.Work submitted for this research degree at the University of Plymouth has notformed part of any other degree either at the University of Plymouth or at anotherestablishment.This research was financed with the aid of a studentship from the University ofPlymouth.Related publications:Rhodes, J., May, J., Andrade, J., & Kavanagh, D. (2018). Enhancing Grit throughFunctional Imagery Training in Professional Soccer. The Sport Psychologist, 32(3),220-225.Rhodes, J., & May, J. (in review). Narrative Analysis of Grit in Elite Sport.Rhodes, J., May, J., & James, A. (in review). Measuring Grit in Sport.Rhodes, J., & May, J. (in review). Measuring and Enhancing Grit through FunctionalImagery Training for Groups in Sport.Rhodes, J., Booth, A., & May, J. (in review). Penalty Success in Professional Soccer: ARandomised Comparison between Imagery Methodologies.Presentations at Conferences:Rhodes, J., (2019, June). Functional Imagery Training for Groups in Education. Posterpresentation at the Cognition Institute Conference, University of Plymouth.
Rhodes, J., May, J., Andrade, J., & Ramage, R. (2019, April). Measuring and ChangingMindsets in Education. 8th Annual Pedagogic Research Institute and ObservatoryConference, University of Plymouth.Rhodes, J. (2019, January). Functional Imagery Training in Sport. Visuals anddescriptions of research at the Research Festival, Images of Research, University ofPlymouth.Rhodes, J. (2018, June). Functional Imagery Training in Professional Soccer. Oralpresentation at the Cognition Institute Conference, University of Plymouth.Rhodes, J. (2018, June). Creating Grit in Olympic Swimmers. Poster presentation atthe Cognition Institute Conference, University of Plymouth.Rhodes, J. (2017, March). Creating gritty learners by challenging mindsets. Oralpresentation at the South West Teaching Alliance Conference, Ivybridge School.Rhodes, J. (2016, July). Imagery in Performance Sport. Poster presentation at theCognition Institute Conference, University of Plymouth.Rhodes, J. (2015). Developing Grit in Sport. Oral presentation at the Channel IslandsSports Conference, Guernsey Sports Commission.Word count of main body of thesis: 58, 521Signed: . .Date: 08.11.2019
Enhancing Grit in Elite Athletes through Functional Imagery TrainingJonathan RhodesABSTRACTGrit has been researched across a wide variety of domains with negative correlationsto drop out rates and positive associations to performance. However, there has beenlittle to empirically change character through interventions, and even fewer in sport.A total of six studies are presented through a mixed-method approach to initiallygain an understanding how grit is created, and the processes involved in developingthe trait (Studies One and Two). From the phenomenological findings, a bespokeFunctional Imagery Training (FIT) intervention is initially tailored to athletes anddelivered (Study Three). With ceiling effects present from our performance athletes(and those in Study Two) on the Grit Scale, a modified Sporting Grit Scale (SGS) isdeveloped through the help of a small focus group, and then administered to 181athletes to determine validity and reliability over time (Study Four). Thereafter(Study Five), the SGS is administered to 161 athletes across three levels ofcompetition (elite, performance and talent) and participants randomly split intocontrol or an adapted FIT for Groups condition, where players receive imagerytogether. Athletes in the FIT for Groups condition significantly increased their gritand perceived performance scores. The final study (Six) was conducted to examine ifFIT for Groups was similar to PETTLEP and a control condition based on a penaltykick task and the SGS. Findings showed that PETTLEP and FIT for Groups significantlyenhanced penalty performance over a week, however, after more than 15 weeks
later only the FIT for Groups condition maintained their performance score.Increases in grit score were only observed in the FIT for Groups condition.This thesis develops motivational imagery by offering a guide to holisticimagery, developed from FIT, which merges theory and application from motivation,therapy, and imagery, to promote long lasting behaviour and character change forathletes. In addition, it is hoped that this thesis will act as a guide for otherpractitioners working with groups in other domains and can help promote a grittymindset which influences performance.
CONTENTSFRONT MATTERPREFACE .iCHAPTER ONE – AN INTRODUCTION TO GRIT .1OVERVIEW .1GRIT . 2Perseverance of Effort and Consistency of Interests 5Passion 7Goals . .9Talent, Personality and Achievement 11TRAINING CHARACTER 14Implications for Research .16CHAPTER TWO – MIXED METHODOLOGIES 17OVERVIEW .17MIXED METHODS RESEARCH .18Phenomenological Methodologies in Sport .20Epistemology 22Purposeful Samples .24CHAPTER THREE – A PHENOMENOLOGICAL NARRATIVE APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDINGGRIT .27OVERVIEW .27CREATING GRIT IN SUPER-ELITE ATHLETES . 28STUDY ONE: USING PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO EXAMINE GRIT 29Aim . .29Methodology .30Results .35General Discussion 57CHAPTER FOUR - CREATING GRIT IN OLYMPIC SWIMMERS .60OVERVIEW .60INTRODUCTION 60STUDY TWO: GRIT IN OLYMPIC SWIMMING .63
Method 63Results and Discussion 67General Discussion 94CHAPTER FIVE – HOLISTIC IMAGERY .101OVERVIEW 101IMAGERY 101Imagery Training . .104Motivational Imagery .108The Functional Imagery Training Approach . 114Linking Imagery to Grit . 117Holistic Model of Imagery 119Research Directions .125CHAPTER SIX – ENHANCING GRIT THROUGH FUNCTIONAL IMAGERY TRAINING 127OVERVIEW 127STUDY THREE: ENHANCING GRIT THROUGH FUNCTIONAL IMAGERY TRAINING INSOCCER .127Aim and Hypothesis .127Method .128Results .133Discussion 136CHAPTER SEVEN – FUNCTIONAL IMAGERY TRAINING IN SPORT 142OVERVIEW 142STUDY FOUR: THE SPORTING GRIT SCALE 143Aim and hypothesis .143Method .144Results .148Discussion 155STUDY FIVE: ENHANCING GRIT IN SPORT .158Aim and hypothesis .158Method .158Results .166Discussion 170
STUDY SIX: A COMPARISON BETWEEN IMAGERY TRAINING 174Aim and hypothesis .174Method .175Results .179Discussion 182CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 187CHAPTER EIGHT – REVIEWING FIT FOR GROUPS .189GENERAL DISCUSSION .189Summary of Main Findings .190Reviewing a Mixed Methods Approach 192FIT FOR GROUPS .193Implications 197Limitations and Future Directions .200CONCLUSION .204REFERENCES . . 206APPENDICIES 236Appendix A: Holistic Model of Imagery with Integrated MI/FIT Questions .238Appendix B: Example of Individual FIT Script 239Appendix C: Example of Motivational Interviewing .241Appendix D: Delivering FIT for Groups .242Appendix E: Scripts to Aid Replication for Study Six .247
LIST OF TABLESCHAPTER THREETABLE 1: AUTOBIOGRAPHY ATHLETE INFORMATION 33CHAPTER FOURTABLE 2: SUPER-ORDINATE AND CORRESPONDING SUB-ORDINATE THEMES .68CHAPTER SEVENTABLE 3: DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS FROM SPORTING GRIT SCALE .149TABLE 4: CFA MODEL COMPARISON. THE 1 FACTOR MODEL DETERMINES THE FIT FOR THEGRIT ITEMS AS A WHOLE, THE 2 FACTOR MODEL IS FOR SEPARATE FACTORS OF PASSION (5ITEMS) AND PERSERVERANCE (5 ITEMS), AND THE 2 FACTOR NEW IS THE OUTPUTS FORPASSION (3 ITEMS) AND PERSERVERANCE (7 ITEMS) .150TABLE 5: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN QUESTIONS (N 181) .151TABLE 6: DESCRIPTIVES FOR TOTAL GRIT, PASSION AND PERSERVERANCE SEPARATED BYLEVELS OF PERFORMANCE .153TABLE 7: PROGRESSION FROM PERFORMANCE TO ELITE LEVEL SEPARATED BYCONDITION .170TABLE 8: MEANS (AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS) FOR CONDITIONS OVER THREE TIMEPOINTSFOR PENALTIES SCORED PER PARTICIPANT 181CHAPTER EIGHTTABLE 9: METHOD AND SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS .191
LIST OF FIGURESCHAPTER THREEFIGURE 1: A GROUNDED THEORY OF GRIT IN ELITE SPORT 38CHAPTER FIVEFIGURE 2: HOLISTIC MODEL OF IMAGERY . 121CHAPTER SIXFIGURE 3: BOX AND SCATTERPLOTS FOR CONDITIONS FOR BASELINES (LEFT) AND 12 WEEKSAFTER THE INTERVENTION HAD FINISHED (RIGHT) .134FIGURE 4: GRIT SCORES INCREASED AFTER FUNCTIONAL IMAGERY TRAINING FOR BOTH THEIMMEDIATE- (SOLID LINE) AND DELAYED-INTERVENTION (DOTTED LINE) GROUPS, BUT THECONTROL GROUP (DASHED LINE) DID NOT CHANGE. THE DELAYED-INTERVENTION GROUPCONTINUED TO IMPROVE FOR ANOTHER 6 WEEKS. BARS SHOW 1 STANDARD ERRORS OFMEASUREMENT .135FIGURE 5: DIVERGING BAR PLOT FOR EACH PARTICIPANT (Y AXIS) CHANGE IN SCORES (X AXIS)FROM BASELINE TO WEEK 12. THE BLUE BARS SIGNIFY FIT AND THE RED BARS ARE THECONTROL GROUP. A MISSING BAR REPRESENTS A PARTICIPANT WITH NO CHANGE INSCORE .136CHAPTER SEVENFIGURE 6: BOXPLOT BASED ON SPORT AND SCATTERPLOT SHOWING INDIVIDUAL TOTALSCORES ON THE SGS AT BASELINE .152FIGURE 7: AGE/TOTAL BY LEVEL (r .53) 153FIGURE 8: EXPERIENCE/TOTAL BY LEVEL (r .52) .153FIGURE 9: CORRELATION TOTAL GRIT SCORE BETWEEN BASELINE (X AXIS) AND AFTER 6WEEKS (Y AXIS) .154FIGURE 10: CONSORT FOR PARTICIPANT ALLOCATIONS .160FIGURE 11: INTERACTION PLOT BETWEEN TIME ON THE X AXIS, TOTAL GRIT SCORE ON THE YAXIS AND CONDITION. THE SOLID LINE REPRESENTS THE CONTROL AND DOTTED THE FITCONDITION. WHISKERS REPRESENT STANDARD ERROR .167FIGURE 12: TOTAL GRIT SCORE (Y AXIS) AND TIMEPOINTS FROM BASELINE (TOT1, X AXIS) FORCONTROL (LEFT) AND FIT (RIGHT). THE BOXPLOTS REPRESENT TIME AND SCORE, WHILST THE
OVERLAPPING SCATTER PLOT IS COLOURED TO CORRESPOND THE THREE LEVELS OFSPORTING PERFORMANCE .168FIGURE 13: CHANGE IN GRIT (X AXIS) FROM BASELINE TO WEEK SIX BY SPORT ANDCONDITION .169FIGURE 14: MEAN (AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS) GOALKEEPER POINTS SAVED PER PLAYEROVER THE 3 TIMEPOINTS. EACH LINE REPRESENTS A GOALKEEPER . 179FIGURE 15: VVIQ SCORES INCREASED FOR EACH CONDITION OVER A WEEK, BUT THECONTROL (SOLID LINE) DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY CHANGE, WHEREAS THE PETTLEP (DOTTEDLINE) AND FIT (DASHED LINE) DID SIGNIFICANTLY CHANGE. ERROR BARS SHOW STANDARDDEVIATION . 180FIGURE 16: THE CONTROL GROUP (SOLID LINE) DID NOT VARY IN PENALTY PERFORMANCEBETWEEN TIMEPOINTS. BOTH IMAGERY GROUPS SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED FOLLOWINGTHE TRAINING AT WEEK 1, BUT AFTER 15 WEEKS THE PETTLEP CONDITION (DOTTED LINE)RETURNED TO BASELINE, WHILST FIT (DASHED LINE) MAINTAINED SIGNIFICANTIMPROVEMENTS . 181FIGURE 17: GRIT SCORES REMAINED UNCHANGED FOR THE CONTROL (SOLID LINE), BUT THEPETTLEP (DOTTED LINE) CONDITION SCORES DID INCREASE, BUT NOT SIGNIFICANTLY. FIT(DASHED LINE) SCORES DID SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVE. ERROR BARS SHOW STANDARDDEVIATION . 182
PREFACEIn a way, I’m so very glad I’m not an elite athlete. At the time of writing this, I havemet, interviewed and discussed talent/motivation/imagery with close to a thousandathletes and coaches across the four years of this PhD, including professional rugbyplayers, elite sailors, lots of football players, basketballers, a few surfers, swimmersand a folly of fencers. Of these athletes, around 10% make a comfortable living fromtheir sport and have a clear pathway for personal development. The remaining 90%struggle. Most have made significant sacrifices to compete at a high level and havelimited funding. Some are fighting injuries so severe that they may not compete orwalk normally without pain again. The majority of this 90% have no “Plan B” if theycannot attain a long-term career in sport. These individuals are already determined,and very goal centred, so my initial question was to ascertain what made them grittyand to establish why they were not in the top 10%.When I formally started writing about grit, I completed the aptly named GritScale (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009) and found that I was not exceptionally gritty,which is worrying when embarking on a PhD. Not to be perturbed, I instantly puttogether a plan to ensure I minimised my score for question 6: “I have difficultymaintaining my focus on projects that take more than a few months to complete”(p.167). The plan was to emerge myself in one small project at a time in the hopethat, somewhat like a long car journey with many stops, turns and give ways;without noticing, I would have reached my distant destination. Fortunately, alongmy hypothetical and actual travels I have met many interesting people who haveshaped my projects from before PhD inception, throughout, and undoubtablybeyond completion.i
In chronological order, when starting my Master’s degree, the lecturing teamwere researching mental toughness which sparked my specific interest in talent andpersonality. I went on to work for 25 months at a (then) Premiership football club,primarily with their Academy team as a Sports Scientist. From the twenty-twotalented U18 full-time footballers recruited from around the world, only 2 (9%) weregiven professional contracts. Knowing the players and coaching staff well, I asked theDirector of Youth Sport what the main difference was between the players givencontracts and those released, to which he responded; “personality and mindset”. In2007 this lead me to start researching Mindset in Guernsey with their highperformance sport programme, and consequently worked on several small projects,eventually presenting our findings at conferences (alongside Carol Dweck at CelticFC), sports clubs (such as Saracens), Universities (Loughborough), and schools (e.g.,Elizabeth College).I then went on to work with the Lawn Tennis Association, British Judo, BritishFencing, with several rugby teams, and as a researcher with various nationalgoverning bodies. When in these roles, there were observable personality traitsimilarities with high performance athletes, which lead me to wonder if thispersonality and mindset could be trained. But, to train a mindset, I first had tounderstand what the elite mindset is, how it is periodically developed, and whatfactors are essential for its nurture. Working in sports performance, I was fortunateto attend the London 2012 Olympic Games with four fencers I was workingalongside, then worked at the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games, with twoathletes attending the Rio 2016 Olympic Games, and have proactively been workingii
with seven athletes who are likely to qualify for the Tokyo 2020 Olympics. Thenthere’s the America’s Cup I have been fortunate to have exposure to hundreds of Olympic andCommonwealth Games athletes competing in both team and individual sports. Ihave sat in coaches’ conferences discussing talent development, and then deliveringmy (what seems now to be primitive) findings at conferences. It was not until I metwith Jon May and Jackie Andrade that I realised that imagery could be such a vitalfactor to change behaviour and grit. In fact, halfway through my PhD when I startedto analyse the findings, did I fully recognised the potential imagery has to changecharacter and influence consistent performances.I wish this thesis had the formula to an elite athlete mindset. It does not. Butit does – in my view – form the basis for many projects to draw from its findings andis a missing piece in the applied sport psychology literature. Through a series ofmixed-methods investigations, this thesis proposes how to create and measure gritin sport, develops a person-centred intervention, then purposefully positively aimsto change character and increase performance. This thesis has certainly improvedmy grit, and the interventions delivered have supported numerous athletes tobecome goal centered, developing an awareness of the requirements and processestowards a mastery mindset.iii
CHAPTER ONEAn Introduction to GritIt is a story of continuous challenge and of people coming togetherto change and improve the system. It’s a story of battles lost andwon, of heroes and villains, of knights and magicians. Of sacrifice,of love and loss, of heartbreak and tragedy. There are dreamsfulfilled and moments of crushing disappointments. There islaughter and tears, births and deaths, risk of daring, physicalprowess and mental powers.- Katherine Grainger (2016, p.2)OverviewGrit has been shown to positively correlate with achievement and negativelycorrelate with dropout rates, becoming a noteworthy character trait to measure as apredictor of success and retention. Recent research would argue to its validity, andwhilst some studies contend the value of grit, others neglect to see its worth aboveexisting measures. This Chapter introduces the phenomenon of Grit, defines theconcept, then examines research into the factors that determine ways it ismeasured. To achieve this, the lower-order facets of grit are discussed, leading on toan overview of goals. As grit has been consistently discussed with relation to talent,similar personality traits, and achievement, it is fitting to consider why this is ofinterest and the issues that underpin grit. Next, ways to train character throughcognitive interventions are described, and then research into changing grit scoresdiscussed, leading onto a final research implications section.In summation, grit in sport is often discussed in the media, but the true valueof grit and ways to train grit in athletes are relatively unknown. The final sections inthis chapter divulge the requirement for a phenomenological approach to examine1
grit, and once an outline is known, explore ways to adapt athletes’ character topromote achievement.GritThe notion of natural ability and individual differences was first documentedby Francis Galton, considering why those with a superior intellect can on occasiondeviate from their potential. Galton stated that “zeal and a capacity for hard labour”(1869, p. 38), are fundamental for all individuals if success is to emerge. Galton’shalf-cousin, Charles Darwin, agreed with his proposals stating in his letter to hisrelative “excepting fools, men did not differ much in intellect, only zeal and hardwork” (1903, p. 25). Through the years, there have been a series of prominentresearchers who have examined the link between ability and hard work byconsidering: the continuity of effort (James, 1907a); opportunity and application ofeffort (Hull, 1945); distinctions between talent and skill (Cattell & Butcher, 1968;McClelland, 1973); and, ability and motivation (Vroom, 1964). In addition totheoretical foundations, Kahneman (1973) proposed that our attention on specifictasks must be explicit, deliberate and effortful, rather than mindless and wasteful.Therefore, productive time spent on the task with full concentration promotestimely achievement. Merging all these concepts, Duckworth, Eichstaedt, and Ungar(2015) posited and applied a Newtonian formula of: achievement ½ talent xeffort2. Where skill is equal to talent, achievement can only be maximized throughthe application of direct effort, which in turn can influence the development ofcharacter traits including zeal.The last decade has seen an upsurge in popular books and general resourcesdedicated to educating the reader of ways to enhance achievement (Clot, 2017;2
Coyle, 2010; Epstein, 2014; Ericsson & Pool, 2016; Syed, 2010). Whilst some authorsargue that genes play some deterministic role, most debate the requirement forenvironmental opportunities that develop personality (cf. Guth & Roth, 2013).Kaufman and Duckworth (2017), debate the importance of cumulative effort thatdrives the change in character traits, none of which are particularly static, especiallyself-control, conscientiousness, passion, growth mindset and grit.Grit has been defined by Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly (2007) as“perseverance and passion for long-term goals” (p. 1087), and a consequence ofhard work, experience, positive mindset, effort, zeal, and resilience. Taskperseverance has been shown to be an indicator of achievement (Dweck, 2008), andis a definitive factor of grit. Gritty individuals can be recognized in all walks of life,from business CEO’s, lawyers, athletes and academics, to the consistentperseverance required for you to follow your career path, weather it is writing grantapplications or amending article changes with the aim of publication.Duckworth et al. (2007) aimed to make clear distinctions between personalityand achievement measurement inventories, creating a standalone scale focused onmeasuring a new construct; grit. The key difference between traits such asconsciousness or resilience is the prominence of long-term goals. To measure grit,Duckworth et al. (2007) developed the Grit Scale (GS) using 12 questions separatedinto two lower order factors; consistency of interests and perseverance of effort.Findings displayed a high internal consistency (α .85) when the two lower orderfactors were combined to create an overall score. A subsequently cropped Grit-Sscale (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009) used 8 questions, removing two from each lowerorder, to demonstrate a strong internal consistency (alphas ranging from .73 to .83)3
within the scale. Grit scores successfully predicted individuals finishing militarytraining and National Spelling Bee finalists. To examine the test-retest stability of theGrit-S scale, 279 participants conducted the test a year apart, finding a correlation ofr .68 (p .001), with alphas at .82 and .84 for their respective years. All combinationsof Duckworth et al.’s (2007; 2009) findings seem conclusive that grit is an effectivemeasure of ascertaining success and is a hierarchical construct verified throughconfirmatory factor analysis.Ion, Mindu and Gorbănescu (2017) examined job performance andsatisfaction in the workforce of 170 Romanian adults, administering the 12 item GSand the Big Five personality factors through the 60-item NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae,1992). Initially, results of both NEO-FFI (CFI 0.964; RMSA 0.029) and Grit (CFI 0.937; RMSEA 0.050) show an acceptable goodness of fit. Further confirmatoryfactor analysis was applied to both measurement scores and job outcomes, findingthat Grit’s addition on the NEO-FFI produced a small increment in predicting workrelated outcomes. Other authors (Jachimowicz, Wihler, & Galinsky, 2017; Credé,Tynan, & Harms, 2017; Cormier, Dunn, & Dunn, 2019) have examined and argue thevalidity of grit as an identical personality characteristic to the Big Five traitconscientiousness. A meta-analysis (Credé et al., 2017) representing 66,807individuals found that total grit scores do not predict achievement, and there is astronger incremental validity for perseverance alone when correlated with academicperformance (ΔR .040) and high school Grade Point Average (GPA) (ΔR .085). Themeta-analysis also found no difference between conscientiousness and grit whenincremental validity was considered, based on academic achievement or collegeGPA.4
It is realistic to suggest that the initial use of the GS was conducted on a highproportion of passionate individuals, such as those dedicated to pursuing a career inthe military. To follow a career in the military is often a long-term goal (linked topassion), which requires a large proportion of training and a lengthy recruitmentprocess (perseverance). In more recent research, individuals taking the GS have beenfrom industry workforces, not to infer that many are not passionate about theirchosen line of work, but to indicate the differences in motivations, and the durationof goals. It would seem the dual pillars of grit, (see Jachimowicz et al., 2017) arefragile and lack clarity towards how passion is measured. In both papers (Duckworthet al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009), the validity of passion is neglected, whilstperseverance (and consistency of interests) support the claims for grit.Perseverance of Effort and Consistency of InterestsIt seems obvious that perseverance of effort and consistency of interests arenecessary factors for achievement. Duckworth et al.’s (2007) original GS linksperseverance during adversity as an essential learned factor when a new complextask is introduced. To measure the factors of grit, a 12-item GS was developed,initially reporting a relationship of r .45 between perseverance (6 questions) andconsistency of interests. The GS reported an internal consistency of α .85 whencombining the two lower-order scores. The internal consistency for the‘perseverance of effort’ factor for questions such as; “I have overcome setbacks toconquer an important challenge”, and the scale total is α .78. Similarly, the reversescored ‘consistency of interests’ is based on sticking to subjective long-term goals.The internal reliability for ‘consistency of interests’, e.g., “I often set a goal but laterchoose to pursue a different one”, and the total grit score, was reported as α .84.5
As previously mentioned, the combined scores for both factors offered a higherinternal consistency for linking grit with achievement, therefore combined scoreswere utilized.Examining all the available grit literature, Credé et al. (2017) aimed toascertain links with achievement, conscientiousness, retention and cognitiveabilities. The results found that total grit scores moderately correlated withachievement and retention, and highly correlated with conscientiousness. As studiesmostly use the total grit score alone, Credé et al. found that there was limitedresearch that examines each sub-factor. However, in those studies that do reporteach facet, perseverance of effort was better at predicting achievement th
Functional Imagery Training (FIT) intervention is initially tailored to athletes and delivered (Study Three). With ceiling effects present from our performance athletes . FIT for Groups was similar to PETTLEP and a control condition based on a penalty kick task and the SGS. Findings showed that PETTLEP and FIT for Groups significantly
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