Psychology & Educational Psychology: Meaning & Definition
Lecture NotesEXT 121EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYDr Arvind Kumar (Associate Professor)Department of Agricultural Economics,Extension Education & Rural SociologyCollege of AgricultureCSK HPKV, Palampur (HP)
TABLE OF CONTENTSS TopicPage NoCover page1Reference books3Table of contentsMeaning and definitions of psychologyMeaning and definitions of educational psychologyScope of educational psychology in agricultural extensionImportance of educational psychology in agricultural extension24689Meaning and definitions of intelligence10Factors affecting intelligence15Types of intelligenceImportance of intelligence in agricultural extensionMeaning and definitions of personalityTypes of personalityFactors influencing the personalityRole of personality in agricultural extensionExtension teaching – meaning, definition and stepsLearning and learning experience – meaning and definitionLearning situation – meaning, definition, elements and characteristicsPrinciples of learning and their implication for extension teaching14171820212324272932
Reference booksFollowing are the books suggested for further readings:1.Dahama OP and Bhatnagar, OP (1987) Education and Communication for2.Daivadeenam, P (2002) Educational Psychology in Agriculture. Agrotech Publishing3.4.Development. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New DelhiAcademy, Udaipur.Ray, GL (2003) Extension Communication and Management. Kalyani Publishers. NewDelhi.Woolfolk, A E (1995) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon Publisher, London,
PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING AND DEFINITIONSWhat is psychology?PsychologyIt is the scientific study ofbehavior and mental processof organism.The term "psychology" is derived from two Greek words – psyche(soul) and logos (science or study). Thus, literally it means study orscience of soul. But now it is no more considered as science of soul. Ithas moved away from this focus and established itself as a scientificdiscipline which deals with the various processes and behaviour oforganism.Most of the contemporary psychologists agree on a definition ofpsychology as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processesof organism. For more definitions of psychology, see Box#1.There are three key terms in the above definition of psychology whichhave been clarified below:Scientific study means using techniques such as observation,description, and experimental investigation to collect information andthen organising this information.Mental processes refer to private and cognitive process such asattention, perception, remembering (memory), problem-solving,reasoning, decision-making, feelings, thinking, motives etc.Box#1: Definitions of PsychologyBehaviour: B f (P, E)It is the product of theinteraction of individual andher/his perceivedenvironment. Psychology is the science of the activities of individual in relation to theenvironment (Woodworth). Psychology is the positive science of behaviour (Watson). Psychology is the science of human behaviour and experience (Cruze). Psychology is the science of mental activity of an organism (Guilford). According to Charles E. Skinner, psychology deals with the responses toany and every kind of situation that life presents. By responses orbehaviour is meant all forms of processes, adjustments, activities, andexperiences of the organism.Behaviour refers to all the actions or reactions of an organism(person or animal) in response to external or internal stimuli. Thebehaviour of an individual, in a broad sense, refers to anything theDr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 4
Overt (external) behaviourIt is observable, detectable,and public. Outwardly seenor sensed by observer.Covert (internal) behaviourIt occurs within the organismthat is not readily observableor detectable and is private.individual does. According to Leagans (1961), behaviour refers towhat an individual knows (Knowledge), what s/he can do (skill –mental or physical), what s/he thinks (attitude), and what s/heactually does.Behaviour may be simple or complex, short or enduring. Humanbehaviour may be overt (expressed outside) or covert (expressedinside). While symbolic adoption is an example of covert behaviour,use adoption is an example of overt behaviour. Both overt and covertbehaviour can be measured.People who study psychological phenomena are not necessarilylimited to the study of human beings only; they also study thebehaviour of animals. They study the behaviour and mental processesof individual not of group/community. Thus, when they are studyinggroups, the focus is generally on how individuals perform within thegroup rather than the study of the group as a whole.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 5
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING ANDDEFINITIONSWhat is education?In order to know the educational psychology; we have to firstunderstand what is education.EducationIt is the process of bringingdesirable change into thebehaviour of human beings.The world education is derived from Latin word educare which meansto bring-up. Education is also derived from another Latin worldeducere which means to lead out. Education as educere is moreacceptable as it means leading an individual from ignorance toknowledge.Education can be defined as the process of imparting or acquiringknowledge and habits through instruction or study. It can also bedefined as a process in which human behaviour is modified so as to bein closer agreement with some model or ideal determined by thevalues of society.If education is to be effective, it should result in changes in all thebehavioural components.What is educational psychology?Educational Psychology is a combination or overlapping of twoseparate fields of study; psychology and education. It is a distinctdiscipline with its own theories, research methods, problems andtechniques. Educational psychology is distinct from other fields ofpsychology (see Box#2) due to its focus on understanding theprocesses of teaching and learning that takes place in formalenvironments. Educational psychologists study what people thinkand do as they teach and learn a particular curriculum in a particularenvironment where education and training are intended to take place.They help in developing instructional methods and materials used totrain people in both educational and work settings. They are alsoconcerned with research on issues of relevance for education,counselling and learning problems.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 6
Box#2: Specialised Fields of PsychologyToday psychologists work in many specialised fields which have theirown theories and methods. Some of the major fields of psychology are:cognitive psychology, biological psychology, health psychology,developmental psychology, social psychology, educational psychology,clinical psychology, environmental psychology, industrial/ organisationalpsychology, sports psychology, etcEducational psychology deals with behaviour of human beings ineducational situation (see Box#3 for definitions of educationalpsychology). This means that educational psychology is concernedwith the study of human behaviour or human personality, its growth,development, guidance under the social process of education.Education is possible in human beings; hence, human learning is thecentral core of educational psychology.Box#3: Definitions of Educational Psychology Educational psychology is that branch of psychology, which dealswith teaching and learning. It takes its meaning from education,social process and from psychology, a behavioural science (Skinner).Educational Psychology is the discipline concerned with teachingand learning processes; applies the methods and theories ofpsychology and has its own as well (Woolfolk, 1995).Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 7
SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY INAGRICULTURAL EXTENSIONScopeHuman learning is thecentral core of educationalpsychology.Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human beings ineducational situations. Its main concerned is to identify variouspsychological factors affecting teaching and learning process. Itdescribes and explains the learning according to scientificallydetermined principles and facts concerning human behaviour.Educational psychology addresses the questions – “why do someindividual learn more than others" and "what can be done to improvethat learning." Therefore, its subject matter is revolved aroundteaching and learning process and educational psychologists attemptto discover: The extent to which the factors of heredity and environmentcontribute to learning.The nature of the learning process.The educational significance of individual differences in rate andlimit of learning.The inner change that occur during learning.The relation of teaching procedures to leaning outcomes.The most effective techniques for evaluating progress in learning.The relative effect upon an individual of formal learning ascompared with incidental or informal learning experiences.To value the scientific attitude towards education.The psychological impact upon learner’s attitude of sociologicalconditions.Agricultural extension is education and its main purpose is to changethe behaviour of farmers. Therefore, knowledge of educationalpsychology is useful to extension agent for understanding the factorsaffecting the teaching and learning process.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 8
IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYIN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSIONImportance Helps in understandingthe learner. Helps in organisingeffective learningsituation.The importance of educational psychology in agricultural extension isimmense as both disciplines deal with human behaviour ineducational environment. Following are the some of the reasonswhich explain the importance of educational psychology inagricultural extension. Educational psychology helps the extension agent to know thelearner, his interest, attitudes, aptitude, level of aspiration,intelligence, interests, individual behaviour in group, etc. whichplays a major role in one's learning.Its main concern is on teaching and learning. This helps informulating training programmes for improving the knowledgeand skill of extension agent and farmers. It also helps in selectionof teaching methods and aids for organising effective learningsituations and suggests technique of learning as well as teaching.It helps in imparting better education by organising the subjectmatter of learning experience, preparation of different text books,development of assessment patterns, etc for heterogeneouslearners.Educational psychology helps in acquainting learner with themechanism of heredity and environment.It also deals with the problem-solving which is very important forextension agent to develop problem-solving skills amongstfarmers.It helps extension agent to find causes of prejudices, the habit ofsticking to old practices of farming and ways of doing things, thedoubts and lack of confidence and factors affecting motivation.It also helps them to know the emotions and feelings of farmers,how farmers learn new practices.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 9
INTELLIGENCE: MEANING AND DEFINITIONSWhat is intelligence?Intelligence: meaning The capacity to learn The total knowledge aperson has acquired The general ability toperform cognitive tasks The capacity to learnfrom experience or thecapacity to adapt toone’s own environment The ability to adaptsuccessfully to newsituation and to theenvironment in generalThe concept of intelligence is very important in education but it isquite controversial and often misunderstood. Intelligence is a keyconstruct employed to know how individuals differ from one another.It also provides an understanding of how people adapt theirbehaviour according to the environment in which they live.Intelligence is the ability of an individual to cope with hisenvironment. It may be thought out as a composite of organisation oran organisation of activities to learn, to grasp broad and subtle factsespecially abstract facts with alertness and accuracy to exercisemental control and to display flexibility in seeking the solutions ofproblems (see box # 1 for definitions). Intelligence characterises thewhole behaviour of an individual and is sum of her/his abilities whichare quantitatively differentiable. Intelligence is the product ofheredity and environment. The opportunities to learn vary widely, yetthe inherited capacity as modified by maturation accounts for aBox #1: Definitions of IntelligenceIntelligence: definitionIt is the cognitive ability of anindividual to learn fromexperience, to reason well, toremember importantinformation, and to copewith the demands of dailyli i Intelligence is the ability to judge well, reason well and act well (Binet). Intelligence is the global or aggregate capacity of an individual to thinkrationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/hisenvironment (Wechsler). Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new andchanging conditions (Wagnon). Intelligence is the the ability to adapt, to shape and select environmentto accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture(Sternberg). Intelligence is the capacity to do something useful in the society inwhich we live. Intelligence is the ability to respond successfully to newsituations and the capacity to learn from one’s past experiences(Gardner). Intelligence is the ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge forsolving problems and adapting to the world (Woolfolk).greater part of the individual variability. In order to understandconcept of intelligence, we have to know its theories.Uni or one factor theorySome psychologists believe intelligence is a basic ability that affectsperformance on all cognitively oriented tasks. An intelligent personDr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 10
will do well in computing mathematical problems, analysing poetry,taking history essay examinations, and solving riddles.Two-factor theorySpearman suggested that intelligence consisted of a general factor (gfactor) and some specific factors (s-factors). The g-factor includesmental operations which are primary and common to allperformances. In addition to the g-factor, he said that there are alsomany specific abilities. These are contained in what he called the sfactor. Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may behigh on g-factor, but in addition to this, they have specific abilitieswhich allow them to excel in their respective domains.Multiple theory of intelligenceAccording to Gardner, all human beings possess at least eightintelligences (see Box #2). Thus, intelligence is not a single entity;rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each type of intelligence isindependent one. It means, if a person exhibits one type ofintelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low onother types of intelligences. Gardner also put forth that different typesof intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to aproblem.Box #2: Eight types of intelligence (Gardner) Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language): It is thecapacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinkingand understands others.Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking and problem solving): Itis the ability think logically and critically.Spatial (skills in forming visual images and patterns): It refers to theabilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images.Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns): It is the capacity toproduce, create and manipulate musical patterns.Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or portions of the body flexibly andcreatively): This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it fordisplay or construction of products and problem solving.Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features of the natural world): Thisinvolves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world.Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours): This isthe skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of otherpeople so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others.Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires):This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitationsand using that knowledge to effectively relate to others.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 11
Intelligence as a ProcessSternberg’s triarchic theory suggests that intelligent behaviour is theproduct of applying thinking strategies, handling new problemscreatively and quickly, and adapting to contexts by selecting andreshaping our environment. Sternberg believes that intelligence iscomprised of three separate, though interrelated abilities: analytical,creative, and practical (see box #3).Box #3: Sternberg’s view of Intelligence Componential (analytical) Intelligence: It is the ability to think abstractly,process information and determine what needs to be done. Thisintelligence has three components, each serving a different function.First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible forlearning and acquisition of the ways of doing things. The second is theMeta or a higher order component, which involves planning concerningwhat to do and how to do. The third is the performance component,which involves actually doing things.Experiential (creative) Intelligence: It is the ability to formulate newideas and combine unrelated facts. It is involved in using pastexperiences creatively to solve novel problems. It is reflected in creativeperformance. Persons high on this aspect integrate different experiencesin an original way to make new discoveries and inventions.Contextual (practical) Intelligence: It is the ability to adapt to a changingenvironment and to shape one’s world to optimise opportunities. It maybe called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’.Concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ)IQ: facts or features IQ value varies at leastwithin a period of threeyears. IQ changes as result ofchange in environment. IQ does not rise all of asudden, it goes upslowly. There is no relationshipbetween the success andIQ. There is somerelationship between theintelligence of the childand father’s occupation.In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept ofIntelligence Quotient (IQ). The IQ is the ratio between the individual’smental age and her/his chronological age. In order to avoid fractions,the ratio is multiplied by 100.Mental Age (MA): It is a measure of a person’s intellectualdevelopment relative to people of her/his age group. A mental age of12 means that a student’s performance on an intelligence test equalsthe average performance level of a group of 12 year olds.Chronological Age (CA): It is the biological age or actual age in yearfrom birth. A bright student’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dullstudent, MA is below the CA.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 12
According to formula, a student with mental age of 10 andchronological age of eight should have IQ of 125. The level ofintelligence may be indicated as follows:S No1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.CategoryIdiotImbecileMoronBelow NormalNormalSuperiorVery superiorGeniusLevel of IQ0-2525-5050-7070-9090-110110-120120-140140 and aboveDr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 13
TYPES OR KINDS OF INTELLIGENCEThe concept of general intelligence is too broad to be much practicalvalue. For convenience, therefore, psychologists often distinguishthree kinds of intelligence.1. Abstract intelligenceIt is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematicalsymbols. Out of the three, this is the one that receive greatest weight.Professional people are high in abstract intelligence. For instance, if afarmer knows about iron deficiency in sugarcane, if same mineraldeficiency occurs in other crop, he can find it.2. Mechanical intelligenceIt is the ability to understand and deal with things, objects etc andmore concerned with the skills of individuals. Industrialists andbuilding traders’ are high in this intelligence. For instance, a farmerwho is having mechanical skill to perform spraying operation doesfast and effectively than those with less mechanical skill.3. Social intelligenceIt is the ability to understand and deal with persons, to applypsychological principles of human relationship. Salesperson,politician, diplomat possess this intelligence.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 14
FACTORS AFFECTING INTELLIGENCEEvidence of heredity Identical twins have moresimilar IQs than fraternaltwins. Siblings reared togetherin the same home havemore similar IQs thanthose of adopted childrenraised together in thesame environment.Evidence of environment Identical twins rearedapart have less similar IQsthan identical twinsreared in the sameenvironment. School attendance has animpact on IQ scores. Children who are breastfed during the first threeto five months of lifescore higher on IQ tests atage 6 than same-agechildren who were notbreastfed.There are numerous factors which directly or indirectly affect theintelligence of the individual and which make up the behaviourpattern of the individual. These factors may be of the following forms:1. Heredity and environmentThere is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence isa product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) andenvironment (nurture). Heredity can best be viewed as something thatsets a range within which an individual’s development is actuallyshaped by the support and opportunities of the environment. Forexample, if a person has tall parents, it is likely that the individual willalso grow to be tall. However, the exact height of the person can beinfluenced by environmental factors, such as nutrition and disease.Heredity provides the physical body to be developed with certaininherent capabilities, while environment provides for the maturationand training of the organism. Newman (1940) concluded thatvariation in IQ were determined about 68 per cent by heredity and 32per cent by environment. This was an average statisticaldetermination.2. AgeA person who is bright or dull in his childhood tends to remain brightor dull throughout his life. The evidence shows that a person achieveshis maximum IQ at about 20 years of age and remains relatively stableuntil around 70 years of age. Some abilities remain constant, whileothers decline rapidly due to declining physical efficiency.3. Health and physical developmentPhysical and mental health may be related to one’s ability to gaindesirable achievements in mental activity. With delicate health, onemay not posses enough energy to engage in mental activity to achievenecessary success. Physical defects such as incomplete maturation ofbrain cells may result in subnormal intelligence.4. SexDr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 15
Analysis of performance on scientific items of intelligence test appearto show that there is a slight superiority of boys in questions thatinvolve mathematical material and scientific concepts, and that girlsexcel in material that deals more directly with humanities.5. RaceThere is no convincing evidence to show how far race is a factor indetermining intellectual level.6. CultureVygotsky also believed thatcultures, like individuals,have a life of their own; theygrow and change, and in theprocess specify what will bethe end-product of successfulintellectual development.According to him, whileelementary mental functions(e.g., crying, attending tomother’s voice, sensitivity tosmells, walking, and running)are universal, the manner inwhich higher mentalfunctions such as problemsolving and thinking operateare largely culture-produced.Culture also influences the intelligence of the individual to someextent. Sternberg’s notion of contextual or practical intelligenceimplies that intelligence is a product of culture. In technologicallyadvanced societies, persons are well-versed in skills of attention,observation, analysis, performance, speed, and achievementorientation due to the adoption of child rearing practices that fosterthese types of skills. Therefore, the test in this respect should bestandardised from one culture to another culture.7. Social and economic conditionsAs the home plays a significant role in the early development years, itcan be expected that home conditions can exercise considerableinfluence on behaviour and attitudes. The activities, interests, andfinancial status of parents and of other adults in the neighbourhoodenvironment may provide for the child poor, relatively meagre, or anextremely rich series of experiences. Drive and motivation canoperate to overcome social and economic handicaps.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 16
IMPORTANCE OF INTELLIGENCE INAGRILCULTURAL EXTENSIONThe concept of intelligence can be used in various fields includingagricultural extension. All type of individuals, irrespective of theirmental strength can be utilised in some or other aspects. Extensionagent can know the type of intelligence a farmer possesses and can beused accordingly. Similarly, the knowledge of some of the factorsaffecting intelligence of individual can be manipulated by extensionagent.Farmers with higher intellectual capacity can be better utilised byoffering broader opportunities and with programmes for theiraccelerated growth. For example, if a farmer is found to have goodteaching abilities then s/he can be used in general extension meetingsto educate other farmers.Thus, an extension agent can increase her/his effectiveness by usingtechniques for teaching farmers with different levels of intellect forsmooth introduction of programmes of change.Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 17
PERSONALITY: MEANING AND DEFINITIONSPersonality: DefinitionPersonality is the sum total ofall that an individual iseverything that constitutes aperson’s physical, mental,emotional, andtemperamental make-up.The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona, whichmeans mask. The mask used by actors in the Roman theatre forchanging their facial make-up. After putting on the mask, audienceexpected the person to perform a role in a particular manner. It didnot, however, mean that the person enacting the given rolenecessarily possessed those qualities.For a layperson, personality generally refers to the physical orexternal appearance of an individual. For example, when we findsomeone ‘good-looking’, we often assume that the person also has acharming personality. This notion of personality is based onsuperficial impressions, which may not be correct. Whenpsychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic conceptdescribing the growth and development of a person’s wholepsychological system. Rather than looking at parts of the person,personality looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than thesum of the parts. In psychological terms, personality refers to ourcharacteristic ways of responding to individuals and situations (seeBox 1: Definitions of personality). People can be described the way inBox#1: Definitions of Personality Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of thosepsychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to hisenvironment (Allport, 1930).Woodworth defines personality as the quality of an individual’s totalbehaviour; that is, how he reacts when his activity is considered as awhole. Personality comprises an individual’s experience, his knowledge,skill, temperament, attitude, habits, character, and physical traits.According to Carver and Scheier (2000), personality is a dynamicorganisation, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create aperson’s characteristic patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings.Personality is the sum total of ways in which individual reacts to andinteracts with others. It is most often described in terms of measurabletraits that a person exhibits (Robbins, 2001).Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organised set ofcharacteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or hercognitions, motivations, and behaviours in various situations (Ryckman,2004).Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 18
Personality: features It has both physical andpsychological components. Its expression in terms ofbehaviour is fairly uniquein a given individual. Its main features do noteasily change with time. It is dynamic in the sensethat some of its featuresmay change due to internalor external situationaldemands. Thus, personalityis adaptive to situations.which they respond to various situations. Certain catchwords (e.g.,shy, sensitive, quiet, concerned, warm, etc.) are often used to describepersonalities. These words refer to different components ofpersonality. In this sense, personality refers to unique and relativelystable qualities that characterise an individual’s behaviour acrossdifferent situations over a period of time.If you watch closely, you will find that people do show variations intheir behaviour. One is not always cautious or impulsive, shy orfriendly. Personality characterises individuals as they appear in mostcircumstances. Consistency in behaviour, thought and emotion of anindividual across situations and across time periods characterisesher/his personality. For example, an honest person is more likel
Psychology is the science of the activities of individual in relation to the environment (Woodworth). Psychology is the positive science of behaviour (Watson). Psychology is the science of human behaviour and experience (Cruze). Psychology is the science of mental activity of an organism (Guilford).
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