Climate Change And Food Security In India - ORF
SEPTEMBER 2016ISSUE NO. 157Climate Change andFood Security in IndiaMALANCHA CHAKRABARTYABSTRACT Climate change has added to the enormity of India's food-securitychallenges. While the relationship between climate change and food security is complex,most studies focus on one dimension of food security, i.e., food availability. This paperprovides an overview of the impact of climate change on India's food security, keeping inmind three dimensions — availability, access, and absorption. It finds that ensuringfood security in the face of climate change will be a formidable challenge andrecommends, among others, the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, greateremphasis on urban food security and public health, provision of livelihood security, andlong-term relief measures in the event of natural disasters.INTRODUCTIONAt the heart of the Sustainable DevelopmentGoals (SDGs) are targets to end hunger, achievefood security, and improve nutrition. For India,food security continues to be high on its list ofdevelopment priorities because the country'srelatively high rates of economic growth havenot led to a reduction in hunger andundernutrition. India's gross domestic productat factor cost and per capita income grew atseven percent and five percent per annum,respectively, from 1990-91 to 2013-14. 1However, the incidence of undernutrition hasdropped only marginally from 210.1 million in1990 to 194.6 million in 2014,2 and India hasfailed to meet the Millennium DevelopmentGoal of halving the proportion of people whosuffer from hunger. About 12 Indian states fallunder the 'alarming' category of the GlobalHunger Index. According to the National FamilyHealth Survey 2015-16, the proportion ofchildren under five years who are underweight issignificantly high in states such as Bihar (43.9percent), Madhya Pradesh (42.8 percent) andAndhra Pradesh (31.9 percent).3
Climate Change and Food Security in IndiaWhile large sections of the Indian populationsuffer from acute undernutrition, rising incomesand growing urbanisation are rapidly changingthe composition of the food basket—away fromcereals to high-value agricultural commodities4, 5such as fish and meat. As a result, the totaldemand for foodgrains is projected to be higherin the future due to an increase in population aswell as a growing indirect demand from the feed.Mittal (2008) has made long-term projections ofIndia's food demand and supply up to 2026.According to her, the increase in total fooddemand is mainly due to growth in populationand per capita income while production is likely6to be severely constrained by low yield growth.Moreover, it will be difficult to meet India's longterm food requirements with domesticproduction alone.7 Kumar et al (2009) also findthat with current production trends, meetingfuture demand for foodgrains through domesticproduction will be difficult.8One of the biggest issues confronting Indianagriculture is low productivity. India's cerealyields are drastically lower than those ofdeveloped regions such as North America (6,671kg per ha), East Asia and the Pacific (5,184 kg perha), and the Euro area (5,855.4 kg per ha) (seeTable 1). Moreover, Table 2 shows that yield perhectare of foodgrains has stagnated in Indiasince the 1980s.Table 1: Cereal yields (kg per ha, 2013)Country/ RegionKg per hectareEast Asia & Pacific (developing only)5,184.0Central Europe and the Baltics4,131.1Sub-Saharan Africa1,433.5Europe & Central Asia (all income levels)3,661.6Euro area5,855.4North America6,671.0India2,961.6World3,851.3Source: World Bank D.CREL.KG/countries?display defaultTable 2: Growth rate of yield per hectare (%) of ins1980-81 to 1990-912.73.42.62.03.01990-91 to 2000-010.91.71.3-0.61.72000-01 to 2010-111.61.04.12.41.72010-11 to 2014-151.6-1.03.11.91.8Source: Reserve Bank of India nsView.aspx?id 164632ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016
Climate Change and Food Security in IndiaHOW DOES CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECTFOOD SECURITY?The World Food Summit in 1996 defined foodsecurity thus: “Food security exists when allpeople, at all times, have physical, social andeconomic access to sufficient, safe andnutritious food which meets their dietary needsand food preferences for an active and healthy9life.” According to this definition, there arethree main dimensions to food security: foodavailability, access to food, and food absorption.Thus, adequate food production alone is not asufficient condition for a country's foodsecurity.Food security is one of the leading concerns10associated with climate change. Climatechange affects food security in complex ways. Itimpacts crops, livestock, forestry, fisheries andaquaculture, and can cause grave social andeconomic consequences in the form of reducedincomes, eroded livelihoods, trade disruptionand adverse health impacts. However, it isimportant to note that the net impact of climatechange depends not only on the extent of theclimatic shock but also on the underlyingvulnerabilities. According to the Food andAgriculture Organization (2016), bothbiophysical and social vulnerabilities determinethe net impact of climate change on foodsecurity.11Much of the literature on the impact ofclimate change on food security, however, hasfocused on just one dimension of food security,i.e., food production. The impact of climatechange on the other dimensions of food security– access and utilisation – have received littlescholarly attention. This paper explores theimpact of climate change on India's foodsecurity by considering all these dimensions offood security.ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016Food productionClimate change presents an additional stress onIndia's long-term food security challenges as itaffects food production in many ways. For one,it may cause significant increases in interannual and intra-seasonal variability ofmonsoon rainfall. According to World Bankestimates, based on the International EnergyAgency's current policy scenario and otherenergy sector economic models, for a globalmean warming of 4 C, there will be a 10-percentincrease in annual mean monsoon intensity anda 15-percent increase in year-to-year variability12in monsoon precipitation. The World Bank(2013) also predicts that droughts will pose anincreasing risk in the north-western part ofIndia while southern India will experience anincrease in wetness.13The impact of climate change on wateravailability will be particularly severe for Indiabecause large parts of the country already sufferfrom water scarcity, to begin with, and largelydepend on groundwater for irrigation.According to Cruz et al. (2007), the decline inprecipitation and droughts in India has led tothe drying up of wetlands and severedegradation of ecosystems.14 About 54 percentof India faces high to extremely high waterstress.15 Large parts of north-western India,notably the states of Punjab and Haryana, whichaccount for the bulk of the country's rice and16wheat output, are extremely water-stressed.Figure 1 shows that groundwater levels aredeclining across India. About 54 percent ofIndia's groundwater wells are decreasing, with16 percent of them decreasing by more than onemeter per year.17 North-western India againstands out as highly vulnerable; of the 550 wellsstudied in the region, 58 percent had declininggroundwater levels. With increased periods oflow precipitation and dry spells due to climate3
Climate Change and Food Security in Indiachange, India's groundwater resources willbecome even more important for irrigation,leading to greater pressure on water resources.According to the World Bank projections, with aglobal mean warming of 2 C above pre-industrial levels, food water requirements in18India will exceed green water availability. Themismatch between demand and supply of wateris likely to have far-reaching implications onfoodgrain production and India's food security.Figure 1: Groundwater level in India (meters below the ground level)Source: World Resources xplain-india%E2%80%99s-growing-water-risksIndian agriculture, and thereby India's foodproduction, is highly vulnerable to climatechange largely because the sector continues tobe highly sensitive to monsoon variability. Afterall, about 65 percent of India's cropped area israin-fed. Figure 2 shows that most districts withvery high and high vulnerability to climatechange are in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra,Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh.Wheat and rice, two crops central to nutrition inIndia, have been found to be particularly4sensitive to climate change. Lobell et al (2012)found that wheat growth in northern India ishighly sensitive to temperatures greater than1934 C. The Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC) report of 2007 echoed similarconcerns on wheat yield: a 0.5 C rise in wintertemperature is likely to reduce wheat yield by200.45 tonnes per hectare in India. Acute watershortage conditions, together with thermalstress, will affect rice productivity even moreseverely.21ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016
Climate Change and Food Security in IndiaFigure 2: Vulnerability of Indian agriculture to Climate Change (2021-2050)Source: CA Rama Rao et al (2013)22Food accessWhile there has been considerable progress inunderstanding the sensitivities of cropproduction to yield, there are relatively fewmodels which assess the impact of climatechange on access to food. According to theFourth Assessment Report of the IPCC,depending on the climate change scenario, 200to 600 million more people globally could suffer23from hunger by 2080 (Yohe et al., 2007). Lloydet al (2011) also make the projection thatclimate change will have significant effects onfuture undernutrition, even when the beneficialeffects of economic growth are taken intoaccount.24 According to their model predictions,there will be a 62-percent increase in severestunting in South Asia and a 55-percent increasein east and south sub-Saharan Africa by 2050.25It is more difficult to find similar, modellingbased studies on the impact of climate changeon food access and nutrition specificallyfocusing on India. However, noted experts likeORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016Nira Ramachandran have underscored theimportance of factoring climate change in thediscourse on nutrition in the country.Ramachandran warns that climate change canslow down, and even drastically reduce, theimprovements in food security and nutritionthat India has managed to achieve so far.26Climate change amplifies the economicdrivers of food insecurity. Variation in thelength of the crop growing season and higherfrequency of extreme events due to climatechange and the consequent growth of outputadversely affect the farmer's net income. India isparticularly vulnerable because its rural areasare home to small and marginal farmers whorely on rain-fed monocropping, which providesbarely a few months of food security in a normal27year. According to Ramachandran (2014), foodstocks begin to run out three or four monthsafter harvest, farm jobs are unavailable and bythe next monsoon/sowing season, food5
Climate Change and Food Security in Indiashortages peak to hunger.28 Climate change willalso have an adverse impact on the livelihoods offishers and forest-dependent people. Landlessagricultural labourers wholly dependent onagricultural wages are at the highest risk of29, 30losing their access to food.In regions with high food insecurity andinequality, increased frequency of droughts andfloods will affect children more, given theirvulnerability. Vedeld et al (2014) conducted asurvey of nine villages in the drought-proneJalna district of Maharashtra and found thatlocal crop yields and annual incomes of farmersdropped by about 60 percent in the drought of312012-13. Such a large fall in income is likely tohave a huge impact on child nutrition becausepoor households typically spend the bulk oftheir earnings on food. In another study basedon 14 flooded and 18 non-flooded villages ofJagatsinghpur district in Orissa, RodriguezLlanes et al (2011) found that exposure to floodsis associated with long-term malnutrition.32According to their study, children exposed tofloods during their first year of life presentedhigher levels of chronic malnutrition.33Yet the impact of climate change on foodaccess is not limited to rural areas. Urban foodinsecurity is also a critical issue because poorhouseholds from rural and coastal regionstypically migrate to urban areas for livelihoodoptions. Ramachandran observes that hungeroften triggers off a wave of migration towardscities, relocating entire families to urbanslums.34 These migrants mostly join the ranks ofpoorly paid workers in the urban informalsector, where there is no security of tenure andwages fall below the legal minimum. India'surban food insecurity indicators present analarming picture. For example, over 30 percentof children below five years are underweight inurban Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka(See Table 3). The proportion of urban childrenwho are stunted and wasted is high even inKarnataka and Maharashtra, which arerelatively prosperous states.Table 3: Child nutritional status in urban India (2014-15)Andhra ipurMeghalayaMadhya PradeshPuducherrySikkimTelanganaTamil NaduTripuraUttarakhandWest BengalProportion ofchildren under 5who are stunted (%)Proportion ofchildren under 5 whoare underweight (%)Proportion ofchildren under 5who are wasted urce: Compiled from National Family Health Survey – 4 Database 356ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016
Climate Change and Food Security in IndiaClimate change will exacerbate India'sexisting problems of urban food insecurity. Thehighest risks related to climate change are likelyto be concentrated among the low-incomegroups residing in informal settlements whichare often located in areas exposed to floods andlandslides and where housing is especiallyvulnerable to extreme weather events such as36wind and water hazards. Mumbai and Chennaiare especially prone to bear the brunt of climatechange.37 Dasgupta et al (2012) add Kolkata tothe list of cities that are particularly vulnerable38to climatic risks, as climate change is likely tointensify the frequent flooding in the Hooghlyriver during monsoon.39 The poor inhabitants ofKolkata are most vulnerable as their homes arelocated in low-lying areas or wetlands that are40particularly prone to tidal and storm surges.Given that food is the single largestexpenditure for poor urban households,displacement, loss of livelihood or damage toproductive assets due to any such extremeweather event will have a direct impact on41household food security. The urban poor hasalso been identified as the group mostvulnerable to increases in food prices followingproduction shocks and declines that are42projected under future climate change.Food absorptionThere are many potential impacts of climatechange on food absorption but there is a dearthof quantitative studies on the subject whichfocus on India. Overall, the global threat is thatclimate change could lead to a reduction ofproduction and consumption of certain foodsthat play a critical role in the diets of poor ruraland indigenous populations such as fish, fruitsand vegetables, and wild foods.43 Change inclimatic conditions could lead to a reduction inthe nutritional quality of foods (reducedconcentration in proteins and minerals like zincORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016and iron) due to elevated carbon dioxide levels.44In India, where legumes (pulses) rather thanmeat are the main source of proteins, suchchanges in the quality of food crops willaccelerate the largely neglected epidemic knownas “hidden hunger” or micronutrientdeficiency.45 Phalkey et al (2015) argue thatmicronutrient deficiencies increase the risk ofacquiring an infectious disease which in turnworsens the problem of undernutrition,creating a vicious circle.46 Evidence fromBotswana suggest that changes in climate thatlead to an increase in temperature and adecrease in precipitation are associated with anincrease in diarrhoeal disease in children.47 InIndia, children living in poor rural areas andurban slums are at higher risk of morbidity andmortality from diarrhoeal diseases. Projectionsmade by Moors E. et al. (2013) say that climatechange will lead to an average increase of about13.1 percent in diarrhoea in the Ganga basin.48Ramachandran (2014) also argues that climatechange could lead to a reversal of India'sachievements in reducing diarrhoea-related49deaths.The impact of climate change on vectorborne diseases is fairly well documented.Climate change will lead to the emergence ofnew patterns of pests and diseases which willaffect human health and lower the capacity toutilise food effectively, thereby posing new risksfor food security. For instance, more people willbe exposed to vector-borne diseases such asmalaria, dengue and chikungunya. According toDhara, Schramm and Luber (2013), the entirepopulation of India except those living in areasabove 1700m above sea level are at risk of50contracting malaria. The arboviral diseaseschikungunya and dengue may also be influencedby climate as both are transmitted by thecommon vector Aedes aegypti.51 The urban poorliving in informal settlements are particularlyvulnerable, absent the basic facilities such as7
Climate Change and Food Security in Indiapiped water, sanitation, clean drinking water,drainage systems, and heath facilities. Highincidence of undernutrition due to povertyexposes the urban poor to diseases linked toclimate impacts, which in turn aggravatesundernutrition and ill-health and reduces theability to adapt and build resilience to climatechange.52 Adverse effects of malaria, diarrhoeaand undernutrition have been found to beconcentrated among children due tophysiological susceptibility.53 Children havebeen found to be at greater risk when food54supplies are restricted.WAY FORWARD: RECOMMENDATIONSAdoption of sustainable agriculturalpracticesThe main problem of Indian agriculture is lowproductivity. To meet India's growing fooddemand, there is an acute need for increasingproductivity in all segments of agriculture. Butgiven the vulnerability of Indian agriculture toclimate change, farm practices need to bereoriented to provide better climate resilience.India needs to step up public investment indevelopment and dissemination of cropvarieties which are more tolerant oftemperature and precipitation fluctuations andare more water- and nutrient-efficient.Agricultural policy should focus on improvingcrop productivity and developing safety nets tocope with the risks of climate change.Better management of water resources mustbe a key feature of sustainable agriculture.Water supply management options such as newstorages and water harvesting are important,especially in the water-stressed regions ofnorth-western India. Water use efficiency inagriculture needs to be enhanced. India'sirrigation infrastructure needs to be upgraded;particular attention needs to be given to northwestern India, the country's food basket that is8prone to climate-induced droughts. Despite thebenefits of drip irrigation, it is still largelyadopted for high-value horticultural crops. Toenhance the area under micro and dripirrigation, the government should redirect thesubsidy on electricity for drawing water forirrigation purposes, which has been a majorcontributor to declining groundwater levels,towards the adoption of drip irrigationtechniques.A four-pronged strategy is recommended forthe water sector:?Increase irrigation efficiency?Promote micro irrigation in water-deficientareas?Better water resource infrastructureplanning?Restoration of water bodies in rural areasStronger emphasis on public healthIndia has historically had a poor record in publichealth. With the worsening challenges ofclimate change, the country's policymakers havealso paid little attention to its impacts onhealth. Despite the fact that the disease burdenfrom vector-borne and diarrhoeal diseases isvery high in urban slums and tribal areas ofIndia, this area was overlooked when theoriginal National Action Plan for ClimateChange (NAPCC) was formulated. The Ministryof Health is currently formulating a NationalMission for Health under the ambit of NAPCCbut given the close relationship between climatechange, infectious diseases and foodabsorption, public expenditure on health needsto be stepped up drastically.Enhance livelihood securityAchieving food security in the context of climatechange calls for an improvement in theORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016
Climate Change and Food Security in Indialivelihoods of the poor and food-insecure to notonly help them escape poverty and hunger butalso withstand, recover from, and adapt to theclimate risks they are exposed to. India'sNational Rural Employment Guarantee Act(NREGA) of 2005 marked a global milestone inthe history of poverty alleviation. NREGA hashad several positive effects: increasing ruralwages, reducing gender wage gaps, enablingbetter access to food, and reducing distressmigration from rural areas. NREGA has alsomade an important contribution to child wellbeing, through the reduction of hunger and55improvement of health and education.Moreover, the scheme contributes to ecologicalrestoration and natural resource regenerationin dry regions. Water conservation accountedfor about half of the total projects supported byNREGA from 2006 to 2008, with 850,000completed works.56 Although some gaps havebeen observed in the implementation ofNREGA, the scheme has various benefits for therural poor, particularly the marginalisedsections, women, scheduled castes andscheduled tribes. Therefore, funding allocationsfor NREGA should be maintained and effortsshould be made to more effectively streamlinethe funds to plug existing leakages.Given the level of urban poverty,undernutrition, and lack of remunerativeemployment, there is a strong case for providingguaranteed employment on the lines of NREGAin urban areas as well. Such a scheme should betailored to not only provide livelihood securityto the urban poor but also create climateresilient urban infrastructure in Indian cities.Additional efforts are required for thevulnerable populations residing in theecologically fragile coastal and forest regions.Greater emphasis on urban food insecurityUrban India is not only an importantcontributor to global greenhouse gas emissionsORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016but also a victim of climate change as poorpeople account for the bulk of its population. Asobserved earlier, climate change will have anenormous impact on urban food insecurity.Therefore, urban food insecurity deservesserious attention. The approach towardstackling urban food insecurity must take intoaccount both the access and absorptiondimensions of food insecurity. To improveaccess to healthy food, effective publicdistribution systems need to be put in place.Efforts must be made to learn from states suchas Tamil Nadu which has an effective publicdistribution system and has better nutritionaloutcomes.57 To improve food absorption, livingconditions in urban informal settlements needto be upgraded. The Swachh Bharat Mission,which aims to construct 10.4 million individualtoilets and 0.5 million public toilets and adoptscientific solid waste management in 4,041towns, may be regarded as a step in the rightdirection.Indian cities have an extremely poor recordin disaster management. Therefore, publicinvestment in climate-resilient infrastructureshould be enhanced. In India, flood controlefforts, sanitation infrastructure andsurveillance activities are not very effective.Better infrastructure in urban areas willminimise the disease risks caused by flooding.Long-term relief measures in the event ofnatural disastersIndia's disaster-management strategies aremostly inadequate, short-lived and poorlyconceived. Also, much of the emphasis is laid onproviding quick relief to the affected householdsas opposed to developing long-term adaptationstrategies. Little effort is made towardsaddressing the long-term impacts of naturaldisasters on agricultural productivity andundernutrition. A recent report by NITI Aayog9
Climate Change and Food Security in Indiasuggests that “the government should transfer aminimum specified sum of cash to affectedfarmers and landless workers as an instantrelief”.58 For richer farmers who may wantinsurance above this relief, the reportrecommends a separate commercially viable59crop insurance programme.Given the vulnerability of Indian agricultureto climate-induced natural disasters and theirlong-term impacts on agricultural output,livelihoods and nutrition, such a short-sightedapproach towards disaster relief will only proveinadequate. The government needs to take along-term view of disaster relief. Moreover,given the adverse impacts of natural disasterson child nutrition, long-term undernutritionprevention programmes must be implementedin disaster-affected regions. Additional effortsmust be directed towards reducing the risk inagriculture. Such schemes should be speciallytargeted towards small farmers.Need for more impact assessment studiesTo develop climate-resilient strategies and makeadequate policy interventions, there is a needfor an integrated assessment of the impact ofclimate change on India's food security. So far,there are fewer studies on the impact of climatechange on other dimensions of food securitybesides production. Research efforts should bedirected towards assessing and quantifyingwhere possible the impact of climate change onundernutrition and food absorption.(This paper has been prepared under a project on ‘Urbanising India’, funded by the Research Council ofNorway and jointly undertaken by the Observer Research Foundation, Delhi and the Peace ResearchInstitute, Oslo.)ABOUT THE AUTHORMalancha Chakrabarty is an Associate Fellow at Observer Research Foundation.ENDNOTES1.2.3.Figures from Reserve Bank of India database, https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/Publications View.aspx?id 16443.Figures from Food and Agriculture Organization Database, http://www.fao.org/hunger/en/Figures from NFHS-4 Fact Sheets for Key Indicators Based on Final Data. http://rchiips.org/nfhs/ factsheet nfhs4.shtml.4. Surbhi Mittal, “Structural Shift in Demand for Food: Projections for 2020”, Working Paper 184, Indian Council forResearch on International Economic Research, New Delhi, August 2006. http://www.icrier.org/pdf/WP 184.pdf5. SK Goyal and P Singh, “Demand Versus Supply of Food grains in India: Implications to Food Security”, Paper preparedfor presentation at the 13th International Farm Management Congress, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 8/2/cp02go02.pdf6. Surabhi Mittal, “Demand-Supply Trends and Projections of Food in India”, Working Paper No. 209, Indian Council ofResearch on International Economic Research, New Delhi, March 2008, %20PAPER%20209.pdf7. Ibid.8. Praduman Kumar, P.K. Joshi and Pratap S. Birthal, “Demand Projections for Foodgrains in India”, AgriculturalEconomics Research Review, 22(2009): 2379. “Rome Declaration on World Food Security”, Rome, November 13-7, 1996. 10. Parry et al., “Climate Change and Hunger: Responding to the Challenge”, Rome: World Food Programme, 2009,http://www.preventionweb.net/files/12007 wfp212536.pdf11. “Climate change and food security: risks and responses”, Food and Agriculture f12. “Turn Down the Heat: climate Extremes, regional impacts, and the case for resilience”, World Bank, 2013.10ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 157lSEPTEMBER2016
Climate Change and Food Security in ldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Full Report Vol 2 Turn Down The Heat %20Climate Extremes Regional Impacts Case for Resilience Print%20version FINAL.pdfIbid.RV Cruz et al., “Asia”, inClimate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of WorkingGroup II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds. M.L. Parry etal.(UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 469-506Tien Shiao, Andrew Maddocks, Chris Carson and Emma Loizeaux, “3 Maps Explain India's Growing Water Risks”,February 26, Turn Down the Heat: climate Extremes, regional impacts, and the case for resilience”, World Bank, k/document/Full Report Vol 2 Turn Down The Heat %20Climate Extremes Regional Impacts Case for Resilience Print%20version FINAL.pdfDavid B. Lobell, Adam Sibley and J. Ivan Ortiz-Monasterio, “Extreme heat effects on wheat senescence in India”,Nature Climate Change, 2(2012): 186, http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v2 /n3/full/nclimate1356.htmlW E Easterling et al., “Food, fibre and forest products”, in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation andVulnerability.Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change, eds. M.L. Parry et al. (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), r4/wg2/ar4 wg2 full report.pdfLal M et al., “Asia”, in Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group IIto the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc
challenges. While the relationship between climate change and food security is complex, most studies focus on one dimension of food security, i.e., food availability. This paper provides an overview of the impact of climate change on India's food security, keeping in mind three dimensions — availability, access, and absorption.
Food Security and Nutrition 1.1.Climate Change and Agriculture Climate change shows in different transformations of climate variables that are causing significant economic, social and environmental effects. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in 2002, has defined climate change as “any change in climate over time,
Climate change and food security: a framework document iii FOREWORD Climate change will affect all four dimensions of food security: food availability, food accessibility, food utilization and food systems stability. It will have an impact on human health, livelihood assets, food production and distribution channels, as well as changing
2.2 Impacts of sea-level rise and remote climate 9 2.3 Impacts of extreme weather events 11 3. Climate impacts on food security 15 3.1 Climate change and food production 15 3.2 Climate change impacts on food access and livelihoods 16 3.3 Climate change impacts on nutrition and utilis
1.1 Impacts of climate change on food security and nutrition 9 Agriculture in the IPCC’s work 9 Youba Sokona, Vice-Chair, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Impacts of climate change on food security and nutrition 10 Hugo Melgar-Quinonez, Director, Institute for Global Food Security, McGill University - session chair
Gender and climate change – Women as agents of change. IUCN climate change briefing, December 2007 Gender, Climate Change and Human Security. Lessons from Bangladesh, Ghana and Senegal. Prepared for ELIAMEP for WEDO, May 2008 Gender and Climate Change. Gender in CARE’s Adaptation Learning Programme for Africa. CARE and Climate Change, 2011 –
climate change on current food security, as the task is too difficult. Food security at national and individual levels depends fundamentally on how much food is produced, but also on distribution, affordability and a host of additional factors, such as culture and health. Climate change affects availability of food, access to food, .
The implications of climate change on food security in the Asia-Pacific Region 26 Molly Brown—Climate change, nutrition and food security in sub-Saharan Africa 32 Ina Schonberg et al.—Opportunities for action: linking climate change adaptation to nutrition and food security programs and policies 37
criminal case process; the philosophies and alterna-tive methods of corrections; the nature and processes of treating the juvenile offender; the causes of crime; and the role of government and citizens in finding solutions to America’s crime problems. 2. Develop, state, and defend positions on key issues facing the criminal justice system, including the treatment of victims, police-community .
