CSIRO Food Research Quarterly - Alumni
-r 4iVol. 34 No.1 March 1974-7LJ-Cl?. ,. . .,,' h-*,'. : c''K.CSIROFood ResearchQuarterly
New protein foodsB y J. F. KeffordCSlRO Food Research Laboratory. North Ryde, N.S.W.Research into foods from textured proteins (TP foods) begins at North RydeAt the Food Research Laboratory, NorthRyde, the Division of Food Researchhas initiated a research program on newfoods based mainly on proteins of vegetableorigin. Two experienced food scientists,M r J. Shipton and Mr J. Last, have beenassigned to this project.The decision to enter the area of researchon vegetable protein foods was motivatedfrom two directions. MFhileAustralia hasample supplies of animal protein foods, anda high per capita consumption of these foods,the increasing demand and rising prices forthem in the world market suggested that itwould be expedient to investigate vegetableprotein foods as competitors with and asextenders for meat. Further, oil seed cropshave become important in Australianagriculture, and there is increasing interestin better utilization of the protein components, traditionally regarded as byproducts used only for animal feeding.Primary productsThe principal primary products so farused for making new protein foods areseeds-legume seeds, oil seeds and cereals.The soybean, a leguminous oil seed, is byfar the most important. Other oil seeds ofpotential importance include peanut,sunflower, safflower, rape and cotton.Some of these materials present specificproblems, for instance cottonseed containsglands with a high content of the toxicsubstance, gossypol. However, this difficultyhas been circumvented in two ways. TheSouthern Regional Research Laboratoryof the United States Department ofAgriculture has dcviscd a liquid cycloncprocess which eflciently removes the glands.I n addition, plant breeders have developeda glandless cotton which is gossypol-free.Although the future of glandless cotton isin some doubt, since the absence of gossyp01 appears to increase its susceptibility topests, it has already been planted widely inCentral America as a primary product fornew protein foods.BackgroundI n discussing the technology of vegetableprotein foods it is helpful to distinguishthree types of products:Primary groducts-in the form in whichthey are harvested.Seconday products-derived from theprimary products and themselves usedfor further manufacturing.Tertiary prodttcb-new protein foodsintended For direct consumption byhumans Within the category of tertiaryproducts the term textured proteins isapplied mainly to foods made byextrusion procedures, and the term mcasor fish analogue is probably best used torefer to foods which attempt toreproduce closely the form, colour,texture and flavour of the food imitated.Among the Iegumes other than soybeans,the field bean, Vicia faba, is the mainproduct for development in Britain andthe alkaloid-free sweet lupin has potentialinterest here in Australia.The cereals such as wheat, corn, oats,sorghum and millet may provide highprotein by-products suitable for makingnew protein foods.Leaf protein, and microbial and fungalproteins, may become important as primaryproducts for new foods when theirtechnology is further advanced and theirnutritional and toxicological status forhuman feeding established.1CSIRO Fd Res. Q., 1974, 34, 1-4
M r John Last with the pilot-scale extruder-cooker installed in the CSlAO Food Research Laboratory. North Ryde.Secondary products1After extraction of the oil from oil seedsthe protein-containing residues are availablein a number of forms. For instance,soybeans (Smith and Circle 1972; Cole1973) provide soy grits and soy flour, tvhichcontain about 50% protein on a dry basisand less than 1% residual oil, and aretreated rvi th steam to destroy antinutritional factors and hitter principles andto remove off-odours. The water-solubleconstituents are removed from soy flour byextraction with water or alcohol a t theisoelectric point pH 4.2, to give soy proteinconcenirnta which should contain not lessthan 70% protein on a dry basis. Fromthis concentraw, the protein may beextracted by water at p H 7, then rcpl-ecipitated at pH 4.2, giving soy protein isolattwith not less tI1an 90% protein on a drybasis.I n the most advanced technology soyprotein isolate is converted into spun proteittJlbre, using patented procedures developedfirst by Dr Robert Royer who had beencommissioned by the Ford Motor Companyto make fibres suitable for car tyres andupholstery from soy protein. The venturewas not successful but it did lead to apatent for production OF soy fibres for fooduses which lay dormant for many years.I n Boyer's process (Cole 1973) the soyprotein isolate is dissolved in alkali to makea dopc which is forced through spinnerets ofthe type uscd in the rayon industry.Filaments issuing from the spinnerets arecoagulated in acid, stretched to increasetheir tensile strength, thcn washed and wrungto form an off-white continuous tosv. Thetow is chopped into short lengths for use intertiary products.I n Britain, protein isolate and spun fibre
are being made from field beans by similarprocedures, and the spun fibre is incorporated in a new protein food marketed underthe name Kcsp (Anon. 1973).Gluten, the crude protein prepared bywashing wheat flour, has long been used asa raw material for imitation meat products.When properly llandled it has naturalfibrous properties which impart a'chewy'character. Gluten may be particularly usefulwhen used in conjunction with soy proteins inTP foods since the soy protein contributeslysine and gluten contributes sulphurcontaining amino acids, thus giving a bctterbalanced product than either protcinaIone.value, which may be either an advantage ora disadvantage.TP foods have reached the highest levelof commercial development in the U.S.A.Following large research expenditure byseveral companies and a prolonged lagperiod, they are now receiving increasingacceptance from the food industryand consumers. A major step in securinggeneral acceptance was gained in 1972when the USDA Food and NutritionServices gave approval for the use of T P inthe U.S. school lunch program. HydratedTP may be substituted for 30% of the meatin school lunches provided it is fortified withnutrients to specified levels. These foods aremost acceptable wher? used in conjunctionTertFary productsTextured proicin foodsSecondary protein products may beconverted into tertiary foods in a number ofways, but the basic technology for themanufacture of T P foods is extrusiontechnology and the essential equipment 1sthe extruder-cooker. In this machinea moist mixture of secondary products isfed continuously into a heated tube throughwhich it is propelled by a rotating screwwhile being subjected to steadiIy increasingpressure until i t is extruded through a die.T h e sudden release of pressure when itleaves the die causes the hot product toexpand to a n open-textured form. Theshape of the extruded product is controlledby the nature of the die selected, and it maybe cut off to any required length as it Ieavesthe die. Usually the extruded product passesinto a drier.The Food Research Laboratory hasinstalled a pilot-scale extruder-cooker,Model X 5, made by Wenger Manufacturing Company, Kansas City, Missouri, U.S.A.(see figure).Extruded TP foods are being made fromvarious mixtures of secondary proteinproducts. The cheapest but least satisfactoryproducts are made from soy grits or soy flouronly. Additions of soy concentrate, soyisolate, and spun protein fibre improvethe quality b u t also increase the cost.Typical T P foods have about 50% protein,the remainder is water, starch and additivesincluding flavouring and colouring. T Pfoods may or may not be rehydrated beforeincorporation into other foods. T h e proteinefficiency ratio of these foods is about1 .B (casein 2 5 ) . They have a high satiety-with, rather than instead of, meat, e.g. asmeat extenders in hash- or stcw-type dishesand hamburgers.Australia is already seeing somecommercial activity in the manufacture anduse of T P foods. The Sanitarium HealthFood Company, Cooranbong, N.S. W., hasfor many years prepared meat analogues fora motivated market, and has lately extendedthe range of these products by incorporationof extruded and spun fibre components(Cole 1973). Two companies, P.T.L.Oilseeds Pty Ltd at Toowoomba,Q-ueensland, and Grifith Laboratories PeyLtd at Smithfield, N.S.W., are setting upplants for the manufacture of soy flours andT P foods.M e a l and fish analoguesWhile extruded T P foods may imitatemore or less closely the colour, texture andflavour of meat or fish, they are usuallyrestricted in shape to resemble chopped ordiced products. However, meat and fishanalogues are also being made which,without trying to mislead the consumer,offer him simulated products that looklike the product being imitated: for instance,imitation meat loaves, breakfast meats,sausages, hams, bacon rashers, chickenlegs, fish fillets and shellfish.Meat and fish analogues may be madefrom a variety of protein products, whichmay include various soy fractions, extrudedgranules, spun fibre and gIuten, togetherwith other ingredients such as egg albumen,fats, flavourings and colourings. Someproducts are frozen, some are canned onorthodox canning production lines, andsome are dried.
both imported and local. as thcy becomeavailable, including oil seed proteins,gluten and otIler cereal by-products, andmeat products. Incorporation of meatcomponents in TP foods will be examinedfrom two points of view : the enhancement ofthe meaty character or T P foods and theutilization of iuw-quality meat fractions.Throughout the program close cooperationwill be maintained with the Mcat ResearchLaboratory, and considerable joint activityis envisaged.Research programI n the early stages, the team at the FoodResearch Laboratory will be occupied inexploring extrusion technology wit11 thepilot-scale machine, using importedsecondary soy products as starting materials.It is well recognized that extrusiontechnology is highly empirical becausc ofthe difficulty of defining the physicalparameters such as temperature, pressureand shear from point to point within theextruder cylinder and die. For the samereason it is not easy to scale up results frompilot-scale equipment to commercialproduction.At the same time as this ivork is going or.,a comprehensive evaluation will be undertaken of T P foods a n d meat analogues thatare being manufactured in other countries.Eventually it is expected to extend extrusiontechnology to a range of protein sources,ReferencesAnon. (1973). Thc proof is in the eating. Fd Tectrlrol.Arts!. 25, 325.Cole, S.J. (1973). Simula cdmcats Crom soy protein.Fd Ttcirrrol. A m . 25, 388-96.Smith, A. K . and Circle, S. J. (1972). 'Soybeans:Chemistry ancl Technology'. Vol. 1. (AVJPublishing Co.: Ll'ertport, Conn.)Superficial scaldBy E. F. L. J. AnetCS1RO Food Research Laboratory, North Ryde. N.S.W.The role of free radicals and antioxidants in the cause and control of superficial scald in applesand pearsSuperficial scald is a storage disorder ofapples and pcars caused by the death ofethoxyquin. I-Iowever, oiled wraps arc notalways successful in controlling scald,especially for fruit storcd in controlledatmosphere (C.A.), and rvhilc the antioxidants provide complete control thcy arenot permitted as food additives in somecountries.Other remedies are necdcd; and it ishopcd that if we can gain a clcarcr unclerstanding of the causes of scald we may bcable to work out bettcr control meawres,or at least be able to dcfinc more accuratelyarcas where the search for such measuresnrould I e most profitable.hypodermal cells, and shows up asbrown patclles on the outside of affectedfruits; certain varieties are more susceptiblethan othcrs (Fig. I ) . Several papers havebeen published in the &arlerl lr on thevarious fruit scalds, thc most recent being'Directions for practical scald control'(Hall 1972). Tkle type of scald discussedherc is distinguished from other types inthat i t can bc controllcd, either by wrappingthe fruit in oiled tissue papcr or by treating itwit11 aniioxidai tssuch as dipl-icnylamine or4CSIRO Fd RR J.Q., 1974, 34, 4-8
What causes scald 7FJola!ilesSoon after World War I, American workersadvanced the theory that scald was inducedby unknown volatile compounds produced bythe apple. The basis of this theory was theobservation that loosely packed or ventilatedapples developed less scald than tightlypacked or unventilated ones, and thissuggested the first practical method forcontrolling scald-wrapping the apples intissue paper impregnated with fatsor oils. The success of this method wasconsistent with the idea that scald wasinduced by a volatile compound producedby the apple, which was then absorbedin the oil of the wraps.For the next 40 years many workers triedunsuccessfully to identify the injuriousvolatile; they clirninated from consideration anumber of compounds produced by theapple, including esters. Different workersobtained conflicting results on the effect ofventilation, largely because in most of thecontrol experiments air movement was highenough to remove the volatile. Much workwas also done to determine exactly howthe use of oiled wraps reduced scald, anddespite initial disagreements it became clearthat the wraps were effective because theywere absorbing a volatile compound.U-FurneseneThe next major advance in understandingthe cause of scald came from Dr Huelin'sgroup in this laboratory. We and his groupisolated from apples, pears and quinces thevolatile sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, afarnesene, and they proposed that it was thevolatile compound responsible for inducingscald (Huelin and Murray 1966). This wasthe first reported natural occurrence ofa-farnesene, but it has since been found insome ants where it acts as an alarm pheromone. Recently it has been shown that ufarnesene is the feeding attractant of the applecodling: moth, although apples have verylittle E-farnesene when picked. Duringstorage the concentration rapidly increases,reaching a maximum a t 10-15 weeks andthereafter decreasing at varying rates.Most of the a-farnesene is in the skin of theapples; a little is in the underlying cells.In further experimental work i t wasshown that in apples from the same pick theconcentration of a-farnesenc could belowered by the use of oiled wraps orventilation, with a consequent reduction inthe incidence of scald; but the correlationof a-farnesene concent ration with liabilityto scald did not hold for apples fromdifferent picks or of different varieties.Moreover, injecting a-farnesene intoapples did not appear to induce scald;here, however, the results wereinconclusive because the addition ofm-farnesene caused the apples so to reducetheir own production of a-farnesene that alower total amount was reached.When Dr Huelin and his group proposedU-farnesene as the volatile compound forwhich many workers had been searching, theyalso suggested that the causal agents of scaldwere oxidation products of a-farnesene.Later, they were able to show that theaddition to apples of partially autoxidizeda-farnesene did increase the incidence ofscald when the fruit was stored.Autoxidation products of a-farneseneFig. 1 Svperfic akscald In Granny Smith apples.a-Farnesene autoxidizes rapidly, and athin film exposed to air in the dark at roomtemperature is almost completely oxidizedwithin I 5 hours. The products of autoxidation can be grouped into four classes:VolatilesHydroperoxides (rnonomers)Polymers (containing. peroxideand.hydroperoxide groups)Transient free radicals (alkyl andalkylperoxy radicals)l
The volatile cornpounLs have beenidentified in this laboratory (Anet 1972) andin England (Filmer and Meigh 1971). It isunlikely that tlley are responsible forscald in apples because they are formedonly in tracc amounts, and they belong tochemical groups that are, if anything,slight scald inhibitors. a-Farnesenc hydroperoxides (monomers and polymers) havebeen shown to induce scald when added toapples hut they probably act simply as cataIysts or initiators of autoxidative reactions.Hcnce we are left with the transient Freeradicals as the main agents of cell damage(Fig. 21.Free radicalsPIc-3A-. ,A-7M . T-.t ,, J .c, -.; . . . -,L :-.-5,-.- ,.'1.,\.-.2.-a.d. ,& pc-.Autoxidations are reaciions involving freeradicals which proceed by n chain mcchnn-. . .v .*--ism :. . r-.,-, .,fI dI---pI7"f-:'m}:'p- - ' -.-4'.*,*;-;c;-RH R 0 0 .R.R.fOz- ROO,, .J WFig. 2. Sections of Sranny Sm thapple (a) normal.( b ) moderately scalded and (c) severely scalded.The sectrons reveal the waxy cuticle (A). ep dermis( B ) , hypoderm s(C) and outer cortex (D) The cellsof the epidermis remain intact whllst those of thehypoderrn sturn brown In ( 6 )and eventually collapse(c). together w t hcslls of the underly ngoulercortex (Reprinted. w t hpermission, from The Journalof Hortrculrr ralSoence 31 {4). 234-8 ) ROOH'where RH is an autoxidizable substancesuch as a-farnesene or an unsaturatedfatty acid. Abstraction of a hydrogcn atomfrom RH yields a n alkyl radical K. whichis immediately acted upon hy oxygen togive the alkylperoxy radical ROO', whichthen reacts with another RH to continuethe chain reaction. Of the two typcr of freeradicals formed, the alkyl radical R. cannot cause cell damage directly sincc itreacts preferentially wit11 oxygen, whichmust be present if autoxidation is to occur.However, the alkylpcroxy radical ROOncan abstract a hydrogen atom not onlyfrom m-farnesene, but also from other cellconstituents, including t h x e with vitalfunctions. For these chain reactions tobegin, an initiator is required (e.g. R H initiator R.) ; one source of initiator is thespontaneous decomposition of hydroperoxides, catalysed by trace metals.The chain reaction can be terminatedin a number of ways. One method is simplyto eliminate one of the reactants, oxygenor RI-I. Another effective method is to trapthc ROO. radicals with antioxidants.An!ioxida !sAntioxidants (AH) act by trappingalkylpcroxy radicals ROO* as follows: 0 0 A. I - I R O O H A.Ae non-radical product5TheA'antioxidant are not reactive enough to abstract
hydrogen atoms from autoxidizabIe substances RH, and usually disappear throughdirnerization or dismutation, the antioxidant being destroyed in the process. Sinceapples have very low levels of antioxidantsin the lipid phase compared with manynatural systems, e.g. seed oils, and highlevels of the readily autoxidizable a-farnesene, it is not surprising that autoxidationfrequently occurs during extended storageor apples. This will happen whenever theantioxidants fall below a critical level for aparticular condition (Anet 1974).Before the discovery of a-farnesene,Smock (1957) found that diphenylamineand ethoxyquin were effective inhibitors ofscald. Although it was realized that thesetwo aromatic arnines could act as they didbecause of their antioxidant pi operties,the issue was confused because otherantioxidants, those of the phenolic type,were not effective in controlling scald. Themechanism for this control was obscuredby the known ability of diphenylamine toalter some biological reactions, and theproblem became even more complicatedwhen, latcr, it was discovered thatdiphenylamine decreased the productionof cc-famesene by the apple, and couldthus act in more than one way to controlwaldHowever, these objections to thcantioxidant theory for scald control bydiphenylamine were answered b y recentresults from this Division (Anet andCoggiola 1974). Phenolic antioxidantshave been shown to be unable to preventscald because they do not act asantioxidants for the autoxidizationof.a-farnesene in uivo, although they do soin ve'fro.Several aromatic amines that aremere effective scald inhibitors thandiphenylamine are more effective in uivoantioxidants, and furthermore, these aminesdo not decrease the production ofa-farnesene by the apple.Treatments of comparable Granny Smithapples with various antioxidants havesho vna n excellent correlation betweenthe extent of R-farnesene autoxidation andthe severity of scald which develops duringstorage.H o w mav scald be controrled?Since scald arises from damage to applecells by free radicals produced byautoxidation, its control depends onarresting these oxidations. As a-farneseneis the predominant autoxidizable compoundin stored apples, the control of scaldhinges on our ability to limit theautoxidation of U-farnesene.The ideal solution would be to breednew varieties of apple which are notscald-susceptible, either because theyproduce only small amounts o l U-farnesene,or because they have a n eficient antioxidantsystem. This, howcvcr, would be a verylong-term project. Some current varietiesare resistant to scald b u t lack otherdesirable qualities. For all we know, thepresence 07 E-farnesene may even bedesirable for its contribution to flavour andit may also be a n important constituent ofthe wax that prevents the loss of waterfrho uapples &ring stor:Lge.Autoxidation of a-farncscnc could belimited by:Reducing the concentration of initiators,e xU . trace metalsReducing oxygen in the storageatmosphere to very low levelsReducing the concentration ofa-farneseneTrapping alkylpcroxy radicals withmore or better antioxidantsThe problem of scald has increased withthe advent of C.A. storage because thefruit can be stored for a longer time, andbecause evaporative losses of a-Earneseneare reduced in the scaled atmospheres.Reducing he concen!ratiot of initidorsVery little is known about initiators ofautoxidation in apples but work in thisDivision has shown that thc slight inhibitionof scald brought about by ethylcncdiaminetctraacetic acid (EDTA) is due to chclationof trace amounts of some metals, e.g.copper. The method suffe1.s from twodrawbacks : EDTA is not sufficientlyeffective and it is not a generally approvedfood additive.Rsducing the oxygen concnlration'l'o be effective, any reduction in theoxygen concentration in the storageatmosphere must bring it dorvn to vcrylow levels (less than 3 O ' ) . However, rivl ensuch low lcveIs are rcachcd, other appledisorders hegin to appear. Furthcr, thisreduction in oxygen concentration mustnot be achieved by restricted ventilation,or the concentration of a-farnesene will
increase, cancelling the initial beneficialeffect. The method is thereforeimpractical.Reducing thc concentration of a-fnrnesencDecreasing the concentration ofa-farnesene reduces the number of freeradicals formed, and so enables thcautoxidation to be controlled by a smalleramount of antioxidant. The only knownmethod of obtaining apples with adrastically reduced a-farnesene content isby selecting a suitablc variety. An effectivechemical treatment may be found whichreduces the a-farnesene in the apple and,as I mentioned, diphenylamine does tendto act in this way. Since the amount ofU-farnesene produced by apples varies fromseason to season, growing conditions, too,may have an effect, but because otherfactors have a greater influence on thescald susceptibiIity of apples this seasonaleffect is dificult to study.When apples are placed in C.A. storagethe transfer of a-farnesene by evaporationfrom the fruit to outside the storage spacei s not practicable and the use of oiledwraps to absorb the a-farnesene does notresult in a sufficient reduction in scald.Moreover, the application of oiled wraps isa labour-intensive operation that isbecoming increasingly expensive.Trapping free radicalsloiL11 antioxidantsApples that are immature or that aregrown in hot dry climates do notmaintain their level of antioxidant duringstorage and are highly susceptible to scald.But there is an export market for suchearly rruit and hence they are important.I t may be possible to find substances thatstimulate the production of antioxidantsby apples in store; however, none is yetknown, and if such n compound werefound i t would still need to be tested forsafety and then approved for use, and sowe cannot look for assistancc from thatquartcr for some time yet.There remains, at present, only oneeffective treatment for inhibiting scald,the addition of a n amine antioxidant tothe fruit soon aftcr picking. Twoantioxidants, diphenylamine andethoxyquin, are approved for use inAustralia. I n some other countries,unfortunately, neither of thcm, or onlyone of the two, is approved. With theworld-wide trend to limit the number ofpermitted food additives, the onlyantioxidants that might have rr oreIropcof general acceptance are thosc already inwicle use as food antioxidants, such as thetocophcrols and butylated hydroxyanisole.These are phenolic compounds and theyappear to be inactive as antioxidants whenadded to apples; ifwc can find out whythey arc inactive we may be able todiscover a way of overcoming this, and ofrealizing their potential usefulness.ReferencesAnet, E. F. L. J. (1972). J . Sci. Pd A grrc.23,603-8.Anet, B. 1::'. I,. J. (1974). J. Scz. Fd A gric.25,299-304.Anet, E. F. L. J, and Coggioln, I: M. (1974).3. Sri. I:d Agric. 25, 293-8.Filmer, A. A . E. and Mcigh, D. P. (1971).J.Sci. FdApric. 22, 188-90.Hall, E.G. (1972). CSIRO Fd Res. Q. 32, 33-8.Huelin, F. E. and Murray, K. E. (1966). Vfllare210, 1260-1.Smock, R. M. (1957). Proc. Ant. Soc. Hort. Sci.69,91-100.
Banana researchBy E.G. HallCSIRO Food Research Laboratory, North Ryde, N.S.W.The achievements of the Banana Research Advisory Committee, 1962-72The Banana Research Advisory Committee(BRAG) was set up in 1962 to expandresearch into technical problems seriouslyaffecting the rnarkcting of bananas, and toprcpare and distribute to the bananaindustry up-to-date technical information onhandling, transport and ripening. TheCommittee comprised members from theCommonwealth Department of PrimaryIndustry, the CSIRO Division of FoodResearch, the Australian Banana Growers'Council, the Queensland Department ofPrimary Industries and the N.S.W.Department of Agriculture. I t had at itsdisposal a sum of S12,000 per year, whichwas contributed by the banana industryand the Federal Treasury; the funds wereused to assist in financing approvedresearch projects within the StateDepartments and CSIRO.Up to the time it was disbanded in 1972,the Committee achieved considerablesuccess, particularly in stimulating interestin banana research. I n the 10 years tothe beginning of 1973, 45 research papersand 19 popular articles on bananas afterharvest were published by researchworkers in CSIRO, the QueenslandDepartment of Primary Industries andthe N.S.W. Department of Agriculture.As a result of the Committee's efforts, wenow possess a body of knowledge which,if applied, can solve most of the technicalproblems in marketing Australian bananas.I n this country, bananas are harvestedwhen hard and green, transported overIong distances, and then ripened undercarefulIy controlled conditions before beingmarketed in the shops. The most commoncauses of loss are from tlte fruit beginningto ripen during transport (the conditionknown as 'mixed ripe') or from thedevelopment of rots during ripening;physical damage exacerbates these hazardsby increasing the rase of ripening and byopening the way for infections. The workof the BRAG was directed to ways ofcontrolling fruit-ripening and post-harvestdiseases and improving practices inpreparation for market, all aimed atgiving the consumer better bananas andreducing transport and marketing losseswhich are ultimately borne 'by the grower.Studies on fruit ripeninglMaturityI t would be possible to avoid the probIemof fruit arriving on thc markct in a'mixed ripe' condition, i.e. when somebananas are ripcning or even over-ripewhile others in the same consignment arestill hard and green, if we could predicthow long after emergence of the bunchthe fruit would take to mature. With someother fruits it has been found that a fairlyconstant number of heat units is requiredto mature the crop and, when known, thiscan be used to predict maturity.However, despite a great deal of researcheffort it has not been possible to show thatthere is a constant number of degree-days*needed to bring bananas to maturity inthe plantation. I n fact, it has not beenpossible to find any one satisfactory index,physical or chemical, of maturity for thisfruit. Nevertheless, both research andcommercial experience do show that, in aparticular plantation, bunch tagging canbe used to predict harvest time and, ifdone regularly, can enabIe good controlover maturity of the rruit at harvest, andso of the mixed-ripe problem.* Total heat units above a base temperature of10 C X number ordays.9CSIRO Fd Res. Q., 1974, 34, 9-13
Fruit u*eight (g)h i t vveiqht (g)Emergence 10 harvest (days)Emcrgence to harvest (days)Fig. 1. Relation between length of green hfe, frubtwe ght,and days from emergence of the bunch toharvest. Summer frutt ( I ) 1968 and (11) 1969 fromAlstonv l!eResearch Stat on.green l f e(I)0 fru tw e g h t( I ),.( t)A(11)Fig. 2. Wlnter fru t( I ) 1969 and (11) 1970 fromAlstonv lleResearch Stat on.green l f e( I )frurt w e g h t (I)AlA(11)Green l f eA major achievement has becndevelopment of the concept of 'green life'For bananas, i.e. the number of days afterharvest that fruit may be held, providedthat no external ethylcne is present,without beginning to ripen. This is ameasurement of great practical irnportanoc,since it gives a means of estimatingtransport- and storage-life. Research centresnow have controllcd environmcnts for theaccurate measurement of green life, andthese are a valuable aid in experimentalwork on production as we11 as onpost-harvest problems.It is now known that many factors canaffect green life. I t varies considerablybctwecn plantations and timcs of the year,even between fruits within a bunch;disease can reduce it by weakening fruit,and similarly any s ress-cold, lack ofwatcr, poor nutrition-will result in lour'filling' of the fruit and shorter grccn lifc.What is important cemmercially is thereliabirity of a grower's fruit, and thismeans that his consignments should notcontain nlr
seeds-legume seeds, oil seeds and cereals. The soybean, a leguminous oil seed, is by far the most important. Other oil seeds of potential importance include peanut, sunflower, safflower, rape and cotton. Some of these materials present specific problems, for instance cottonseed contains glands with a high content of the toxic substance, gossypol.
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Types of food environments Community food environment Geographic food access, which refers to the location and accessibility of food outlets Consumer food environment Food availability, food affordability, food quality, and other aspects influencing food choices in retail outlets Organizational food environment Access to food in settings
