Ecological Sanitation And Reuse Of Wastewater
A century ago toilet waste or night soil was collected in the major European cities, sometimes mixed with peat or lime, and used as fertiliser.In China the use of night soil or toilet waste has always been regarded as a valuable fertiliser resource for agri- and aquaculture.With theinvention of the water toilet and development and installation of subterranean gravity sewer systems, these resources began being discharged to water. The water toilet improved the health in the homes, but caused eutrophication and severe pollution of waterways. This isthreatening the ecological balance, even in the North sea, and also many drinking water sources in industrial and developing countries.If thewater toilet had been invented today it would probably not have been certified as an environmentally friendly device. In cities water toiletsaccount for 20-40% of the water consumption (Gardner, 1997). This is often potable water purified and brought to the cities at high cost. Thiswater is used to dilute a resource. Theoretically, the nutrients in domestic wastewater and organic waste are almost sufficient to fertilize allthe crops needed to feed the world population. As much as 80-90% of the major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) inwastewater are present in the toilet waste. If these nutrients are reclaimed they can be used locally as a fertiliser. And what if we at the sametime could produce energy from the organic matter and save water!Technological alternatives to the conventional sanitation that provide thesame comfort, save water and facilitates separate collection of toilet waste does exist. Vacuum- and gravity toilets that use only one liter (oreven less) per flush has been developed. The treatment facilities for toilet waste can easily handle organic waste, hence, all domestic organicwaste flows can be safely collected, reclaimed and turned into bio-energy and fertiliser. Several manufacturers provideurine separation toilets that are easily retrofitted in existing buildings, making urine collection possible. The urine, which is sterile in healthy humans needs onlysome storage time before it is hygienically safe to be used as fertiliser. Improvements in compost technologies facilitate dry sanitation andfecal composting. And furthermore: It provides a completely odorless toilet room.So, why do we not make use of these promising options?There are several reasons. The systems are relatively new. The possibilities to supplement and even replace traditional sewer systems withdecentralised, resource saving systems are not widely known. Such, ecologically engineered systems that collect, sanitize and reuse wasteresources are, with a few exceptions, not part of the curricula at engineering schools. When the engineers do not know, we cannot expectthe decision makers to do so.How can ecological thinking be applied to wastewater engineering, and what kind of systems will evolve? Thischapter clarify some design principles of ecological sanitation.We have not always thought of the consequences or impact that a conventionalcentralised wastewater treatment system has on the larger system that it operates within. Ecological engineering defined as: “The design ofhuman society with nature for the benefit of both” seeks high system integration and is based on a holistic view (Ref). One of the key disciplines of ecological engineering is ecological sanitation. The main design principles for systems based on ecological sanitation are: Systemapproach (holistic): This means to consider the technical and the organisational structures as well as the people involved (Söderberg 2003).The technical structure shows the material and energy flows. It may include the separate collection of urine and feces at the household leveland its recycling to fertiliser. However there is also an organisational, immaterial, structure; how are decisions performed, how is the responsibility distributed, what is the strategy for communication with the users etc, who is paying for what – in total a structure for rules andprocedures facilitating the participation of the stakeholders (households, the entrepreneurs, the administration and the policy makers). Thestakeholders have their own behavior, values and interests that will determine the success of the chosen system Source separation of wastestreams: This is often a logical consequence of the system analysis and facilitates better source control. Nutrient rich toilet waste is collectedusing extremely low flush and urine separating toilets or dry/composting toilets. This can be cotreated with other source separated organicwastes from domestic and agricultural sources. Recycling and resource efficiency: Recycling is often a consequence of ecological thinking.A century ago toilet waste or night soil was collected in the major European cities, sometimes mixed with peat or lime, and used as fertiliser.In China the use of night soil or toilet waste has always been regarded as a valuable fertiliser resource for agri- and aquaculture.With theinvention of the water toilet and development and installation of subterranean gravity sewer systems, these resources began being discharged to water. The water toilet improved the health in the homes, but caused eutrophication and severe pollution of waterways. This isthreatening the ecological balance, even in the North sea, and also many drinking water sources in industrial and developing countries.If thewater toilet had been invented today it would probably not have been certified as an environmentally friendly device. In cities water toiletsaccount for 20-40% of the water consumption (Gardner, 1997). This is often potable water purified and brought to the cities at high cost. Thiswater is used to dilute a resource. Theoretically, the nutrients in domestic wastewater and organic waste are almost sufficient to fertilize allthe crops needed to feed the world population. As much as 80-90% of the major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) inwastewater are present in the toilet waste. If these nutrients are reclaimed they can be used locally as a fertiliser. And what if we at the sametime could produce energy from the organic matter and save water!Technological alternatives to the conventional sanitation that provide thesame comfort, save water and facilitates separate collection of toilet waste does exist. Vacuum- and gravity toilets that use only one liter (oreven less) per flush has been developed. The treatment facilities for toilet waste can easily handle organic waste, hence, all domestic organicwaste flows can be safely collected, reclaimed and turned into bio-energy and fertiliser. Several manufacturers provideurine separation toilets that are easily retrofitted in existing buildings, making urine collection possible. The urine, which is sterile in healthy humans needs onlysome storage time before it is hygienically safe to be used as fertiliser. Improvements in compost technologies facilitate dry sanitation andfecal composting. And furthermore: It provides a completely odorless toilet room.So, why do we not make use of these promising options?There are several reasons. The systems are relatively new. The possibilities to supplement and even replace traditional sewer systems withdecentralised, resource saving systems are not widely known. Such, ecologically engineered systems that collect, sanitize and reuse wastePetterJenssenresources are,with aD.fewexceptions, not part of the curricula at engineering schools. When the engineers do not know, we cannot expectthe decision Johannesmakers to Heebdo so.How can ecological thinking be applied to wastewater engineering, and what kind of systems will evolve? Thischapter clarifysome designprinciples of ecological sanitation.We have not always thought of the consequences or impact that a conventionalElisabethHuba-Mangcentralised wastewatertreatment system has on the larger system that it operates within. Ecological engineering defined as: “The design ofKen Gnanakanhuman societywith naturefor the benefit of both” seeks high system integration and is based on a holistic view (Ref). One of the key disciWilliamS. Warnerplines of ecologicalengineeringKaren Refsgaard is ecological sanitation. The main design principles for systems based on ecological sanitation are: Systemapproach (holistic): This means to consider the technical and the organisational structures as well as the people involved (Söderberg 2003).Thor-Axel StenströmThe technical structure shows the material and energy flows. It may include the separate collection of urine and feces at the household levelBjörn Guterstamand its recycling to fertiliser. However there is also an organisational, immaterial, structure; how are decisions performed, how is the reKnut WernerwhatAlsénsponsibility distributed,is the strategy for communication with the users etc, who is paying for what – in total a structure for rules andprocedures facilitating the participation of the stakeholders (households, the entrepreneurs, the administration and the policy makers). Thestakeholders have their own behavior, values and interests that will determine the success of the chosen system Source separation of wastestreams: This is often a logical consequence of the system analysis and facilitates better source control. Nutrient rich toilet waste is collectedusing extremely low flush and urine separating toilets or dry/composting toilets. This can be cotreated with other source separated organicMarch 2004, Norwaywastes from domestic and agricultural sources. Recycling and resource efficiency: Recycling is often a consequence of ecological thinking.But we need to recycle within spatially small loops and a suitable time frame to obtain an ecologically sound solution. Recycling is facilitatedEcological Sanitationand Reuse of WastewaterecosanA Thinkpiece on ecological sanitation
2004 EcosanContents1. Ecological Sanitation 42. Advantages and Challenges of Ecological Sanitation 63. Ecological Sanitation in Practice 84. Culture, Gender and Poverty 125. Health aspects 14PrefaceThe Agricultural University of Norway is heading thedevelopment of ecological sanitation in Norway and wascommissioned to write this ”Thinkpiece” by the Norwegian Ministry of Environment. The text is the responsibility of the authors.Ecological sanitation is an option for all, but inthis text the main focus is on developing countries. Successful implementation of ecological sanitation requiresa multidisciplinary approach, hence, we have invitedauthors with a diverse background.Dr. Petter D. Jenssen is professor of environmental engineering. Dr. Johannes Heeb has a major in naturalsciences and is chairman of the International EcologicalEngineering Society (IEES). Elisabeth Huba Mang hasworked with ecological sanitation (ecosan) implementation for 20 years in close cooperation with the GermanGTZ team, one of the most active groups implementingecological sanitation world wide. Dr. Ken Gnanakan isheading the Indian NGO, ACTS, which is involved in developing sanitary solutions for the slum population of India.Dr. William Warner’s speciality is the cultural aspects ofecological sanitation. Dr. Karen Refsgaard is an ecological economist working with waste and wastewater. Dr.Björn Guterstam is an aquatic ecologist with experiencein wastewater reuse in aquaculture. He is a network officer for Global Water Partnership (GWP) regions in Asia.Professor Thor-Axel Stenström is an expert on health andhygiene and consults frequently for WHO. Journalist KnutWerner Alsén is responsible for editorial comments andlayout.The authors thank Rune Vistad of the NorwegianMinistry of Environment, Ivar Jørgensen from Noragricand Florian Klingel from the GTZ for constructive comments.The Agricultural University of NorwayMarch 30, 2004Professor Petter Deinboll Jenssen
AbstractEcosanThe challenges and opportunities given by the global community at the World Summiton Sustainable Development (WSSD) and in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)to improve livelihood for people and to restore the degraded environment are historically unique.Investments in water supply, health, and sanitation will be given priority during the coming years. In order to meet requirements of sustainability, cost effective andappropriate technologies must be introduced parallel with new attitudes, especially inthe field of sanitation.This paper is a “Thinkpiece” to show that there are comprehensive experiencesand available technologies that meet new and sustainable sanitation requirements.Ecological sanitation constitutes a diversity of options for both rich and poor countries,from household level up to wastewater systems for mega-cities. The objective of thispaper is to show that ecological sanitation can play an important role in this contextand that it needs to become recognised by decision makers at all levels.Page 3Ecosan
2004 Ecosan1. Ecological Sanitation– AN OPTION FOR ALLMost of the people in developing countries do not have access to safe sanitarysystems. If we are going to tackle thisproblem we have to leapfrog the centralised end-of-pipe sanitary systems of theindustrial world. New affordable technologies based on ecological sanitation, whichsave water, recycle local nutrients andextract energy, open sustainable optionsfor all both in rich and in poor countries.International Water andDevelopment Organizationswith ecological sanitation ontheir agenda:SIDA, DANIDA, GTZ, Dutch Dev.Coop., WSP, WSSCC, IWA, Unicef,UNEP,ATV/DVWK, NORADThe United Nations, during the Millennium Summit in New York in 2000 andthe World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (WSSD) in 2002,developed a series of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) aiming to achievepoverty eradication and sustainabledevelopment by rapidly increasing accessto basic requirements such as clean water,energy, health care, food security and theprotection of biodiversity. The specifictarget set for the provision of water supply and sanitation services is to halve theproportion of people without access tosafe drinking water and adequate sanitation by 2015.The progress towards meetingthe MDG sanitation target is the slowestof all MDG’s, with an enormous gap existing between the intended coverage andtoday’s reality (1). Water supply and sanitation are cornerstones of public health aswell as social and economic wellbeing. Sanitation, however, receives lesspriority during planning, policymaking,budgeting, and implementation, whilemore resources are allocated to watersupply. To reach the sanitation MDG moreattention and allocation of resources areneeded. The amount of resources neededis strongly dependent on the choice oftechnology.The WSSD estimates that 2.4billion persons lack adequate sanitation(2). Most people lacking sanitation live indeveloping countries. In addition, farmersin rural and urban areas experience shortages of water and nutrients in agricultureand aquaculture. It is therefore high timeto look at safe reuse options for urbanwastewater.In order to meet the demands ofsanitation for all, prevent environmental degradation, and to make long-termeconomically efficient investments, newapproaches to wastewater managementmust be implemented. Ecological Sanitation is a promising approach whosepotential contribution for achieving theMDG’s is increasingly recognized amonginternational development organizations.This paper gives an introduction to ecological sanitation as a tool formeeting the goals of urban sanitation asexpressed in the MDGsThe water born toilet paradigmWith the invention of the water toilet andsubterranean gravity sewers the development of sanitation systems moved fromdecentralised to centralised wastewatermanagement. The water toilet improvedhealth, but severely polluted waterways.At the same time the costs for sewagetreatment started to exceed the range ofaffordability for most people in develop-
Water well (right) adjacent to an open sewer.ing countries. If the water toilet had beeninvented today it would probably not havebeen certified as sanitation technologymeeting sustainability criteria.In cities, water toilets accountfor 20-40% of the water consumed (3).Potable water, a limiting factor for development, is misused to flush human wastewhere both water and the excreta shouldbe considered as a resource. Theoretically, the nutrients in domestic wastewater are almost sufficient to fertilize all thecrops needed to feed the world population(4). As much as 80-90% of the majorplant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorusand potassium) in wastewater are presentin the toilet waste (5). If these nutrientsare reclaimed using hygienically safepathways, they can be used locally as afertiliser in sustainable agriculture.for concentrated toilet waste can easily handle organic kitchen waste, hence,most domestic organic waste flows canbe safely collected, reclaimed and turnedinto bio-energy and fertilisers. Severalmanufacturers provide urine divertingtoilets that are easily retrofitted in existing buildings, making urine collectionpossible (8).Urine, needs only storage (timedependent on climate) before it is suitable for use as a hygienic fertiliser (9).Recent improvements in compost technology have made the treatment of humanwaste, safe efficient and odourless (10).Why are these options not widelyused? There are several reasons. Thesystems are relatively new. The optionsto supplement and even replace traditional sewer systems with inexpensivedecentralised, resource saving systemsare not widely known. With few exceptions ecological engineering is not a partof the curricula at engineering schools. Ifengineers are not aware of these developments, we cannot expect the decisionmakers to be aware of them either.Alternatives are on the marketEcosanTechnological alternatives to conventionalsanitation that provide the same comfort,save water and facilitate separate collection of toilet waste do exist (6). Vacuumand gravity toilets that use only one liter(or even less) per flush are on the market(7). The downstream treatment facilitiesPage 5Ecosan
2004 Ecosan2. Advantages and Challengesof Ecological SanitationThe UN Millennium Goal of supplying people with safe drinking water and adequatesanitation can be met with inexpensivesolutions that are well adapted to thelocal conditions. Sanitary systems used indeveloped countries are often too expensive, require much maintenance and havea high water demand.System loicalstructurePlanning sustainable wastewatersystems needs to integrate the organisational system, the technical system,the users of the system and the interactions between these (39).Expensive conventionalintrastructureCollection and transport accountfor 80-90 % of the capital costand more than 65 % of the annualcost of conventional wastewaterhandling facilities (12).Ecological sanitation implies separatingwaste streams, saving water and energy,nutrient recycling, cost efficiency, and theintegration of technology to environmental, organisational and social conditions.In developing countries thereis often no established infrastructurefor wastewater handling. Water, money,and fertilisers are scarce resources whilelabour is cheap and available. Theseconditions poorly match the characteristics of conventional wastewater systemswhich are water intensive with a costlyinfrastructure. In addition conventionalsystems rely more on imported goodswhile ecological sanitation to a largerextent utilises local resources.Moreover ecological sanitationsystems are often locally managed withlow transport costs, minor requirementsfor water, and reuse of nutrients. Theseare some of the reasons why ecologicalsanitation may be more appropriate inlow-income countries than conventionalsystemsAdvantages of ecologicalsanitationAffordable options for allEcological sanitation reduces the needfor pipelines - the most expensive partof a traditional sewer network. Ecological sanitation can provide both the poorand the wealthy with sustainable sanitarysystems at an affordable cost.It is difficult to give exact costfigures for ecological sanitation systemsbecause the local conditions on whichthey rely vary greatly. General figuresfrom UNEP (11) show that the annual costsof ecological sanitation options are lowerthan most conventional options. As anexample the ecosan toilet system in Bangalore has an annual cost per person of10USD. However, more cost comparisonsfor different system options are needed.8 Ecological Sanitation is flexible, andcentralised can be combined with decentralised, waterborne with dry sanitation,high-tech with low-tech, etc. By considering a much larger range of options,optimal and economic solutions can bedeveloped for each particular situation.Increasing health and dignity8 Ecological sanitation eliminates largequantities of blackwater, which is themain fraction carrying disease causingorganisms, and pollute water suppliesspecifically for the poor in developingcountries.8 Ecological toilet systems for the poorenhance their dignity, quality of life andhealth.
The implementationof ecosan leads to: 8 Improved health by introducingnew methods of handling faecalmatter 8 Affordable solutions with lowcapital and maintenance costs 8 Increased food security by betterfertilser availabilty 8 Substantial water savings byusing water saving toilets and reuseof greywater8 Economic development by generation of local buisiness opportunities 8 Bioenergy production by integrated solutions for wastewater andorganic waste8 Stakeholder involvement and system acceptance (considering socialcultural, technical and environmental issues) System approach to ecological sanitation closes loops in wastewaterRecycling and saving resources8 Ecological sanitation saves at least20-40% of the domestic water consumption (3). Adding water saving devices orrecycling greywater makes it possibleto save even more water. This is of keyimportance since water is a major limitingfactor for development in many countries.After filtration, greywater can be used forirrigation, groundwater recharge. or evenfor production of potable water.8 Ecological sanitation enables of 8090% of the nitrogen, phosphorus andpotassium in excreta and wastewater tobe recycled for agricultural use (5). Thisprovides inexpensive local fertilisers thathelp long-term poverty alleviation throughenhanced food production and a series oflocal business opportunities. 8 Ecological sanitation facilitates energyproduction from organic waste resources.8 Ecological sanitation creates localbusiness opportunities for construction,operation and maintenance of sanitaryfacilities and sale of fertiliser products.Challenges of ecological sanitation and possible responses8 Existing legislation in many coun-management (10).tries favours conventional, centralisedsanitary systems and must be revised toencompass ecological sanitation. Thismeans encouraging the implementation ofdecentralised solutions and more focus onpromoting health and resource management aspects.Design guidelines are neededEcological sanitation is a youngdiscipline. However, on a globalbasis, much data and experienceis available. This comprehensiveknowledge must be compiled as abasis for new design guidelines.8 In order to prepare the legal basis forwider implementation of ecological sani tation, performance-basedregulations for wastewater treatment systems shouldbe introduced. This means that a systemhas to meet requirements (e.g. dischargelimits, health and resource recovery)set by the authorities. Such regulationsstimulate creativity and development ofnew systems because any system can beused as long as it meets the requirementsand has been properly characterized.8 The water closet and centralised sewers are perceived as the ultimate solution. This perception increases the gapbetween rich and poor, specifically indeveloping countries. Knowledge aboutthe concept of ecological sanitation mustbe communicated to engineers, decisionmakers and stakeholders.8 Cultural taboos and attitudes can hinderthe use of excreta-based fertilisers. Information is important to change this.Page 7EcosanEcosan
2004 Ecosan3. Ecological Sanitationin PracticeEcological sanitation offers flexible solutions that are used in high tech environments such as Volvo’s Conference centreon the Swedish west coast, the slums ofBangalore India and to treat wastewaterin mega cities in Asia and Australia. Beloware some examples from the rapidly growing field of ecological sanitation.ChinaChina has a long tradition of effectivemanagement of natural resources. Thisincludes reuse of garbage and human excreta in agriculture and aquaculture. Theclassical night soil system was reported toreuse as much as 90% in agriculture (13).Tradition therefore facilitates implementation of modern ecological sanitation inChina.In 1998 70 households in the rural areas of Guangxi, installed new urinediverting toilets and by the end of 2002more than 100 000 households had similar toilets (14). This has paved the way forurban implementation in China (15).The reuse in aquaculture ofwastewater from large cities startedin 1951 in Wuhan, reaching about 20000 ha by the 1980’s (16). The reuse ofwastewater in aquaculture systems hasbeen linked to traditional concepts ofintegrated farming and fish polycultures,which are seen as effective solutions tomeet a growing pollution problem in watercourses (17). Irrigation with municipalwastewater reached about 1.5 million hain 1995 covering around 1% of the totalcultivated land of China (18). Howeverwastewater irrigation poses potentialhealth problems that are not always properly dealt with.IndiaA toilet centre provides sanitary facilities for 600 – 800 slum dwellers (19).The urine is used as fertiliser after storage and the faecal matter is compostedwith wastepaper and garden waste andused for soil amendment. In addition toimproving public health the toilet centreenhances the dignity of women througheliminating sexual harassment associatedwith the traditional practices of defecating in the open.The toilet centre, which generates 200 t of urine and 100 t of faeces peryear, produces 50 t of compost, which inturns yields 50 t of bananas. The projecthas created 8 new full-time jobs. Theannual cost of the existing systems is approximately 10 USD per user.Ecosan toiletcenter in Bangalore, India.
Wastewater fed aquaculture purifies water, produces food and provides green areas.The main sewers of Calcutta began functioning in 1875. In the 1930s sewage-fedfish farming started in the extensive pondsystem used for wastewater treatment.The fisheries developed into the largestsingle excreta-reuse aquaculture systemin the world with around 7,000 ha in the1940s, supplying the city markets with10-12 tons of fish per day (14, 20). Todaythe Calcutta Wetlands using wastewaterboth in agriculture and in aquaculturecovers an area of about 12,000 ha, knownas the Waste Recycling Region (21).Wastewater-fed aquaculture systems likethe Calcutta Wetlands represent controllable public health risks (22) . This is dueto a combination of long retention times,high temperatures, high solar irradiance,high natural microbiological activity,and adequate personal hygiene and foodhandling.are that thewastewater reuse system meets moderncriteria of sustainable development of amega-city in terms of:Lessons learned from Calcutta8 The Environment by providing low-costwastewater treatment, storm-water drainage and a green area as a lung for the city8 Social and economic benefits, includingemployment for about 17,000 poor peopleand production of about 20 t of fish perday for the urban poor (23)8 Serving as a model to be replicatedelsewhere in India and other countries8 Reducing environmental impacts ofcontamination from heavy metals frommajor industries, e.g. chromium from thetanneries in Calcutta (24)EcosanWastewater aquaculture in CalcuttaPage 9Ecosan
2004 EcosanBotswanaThe villages of East and West Hanahai arelocated in Botswana’s Kalahari Desert. Onsite sanitation facilities allow the familiesto produce their own soil conditioner andfertiliser for their vegetable gardens (25).The toilet systems collect urine and faecesseparately.for cattle and sheep. The public watercompany Melbourne Water manages 54%of its wastewater in 11,000 ha of ponds,wetlands and meadows, i.e., 500,000cubic metres of wastewater per day. Thepresent livestock graze on 3,700 ha ofpastures irrigated with raw or sedimentedsewage and 3,500 ha non-irrigatedpastures. The livestock yield a substantialreturn of about 3 million Australian dollars per year, which significantly reducesthe cost of sewage treatment. (27).SwedenVillagers meeting discussing ecological sanitationAfter a period of awareness raising, information sharing and mobilisation,which included meetings with the community chiefs and other events targeting allwomen and men in the villages, 20 families volunteered to pilot the concept ofecological sanitation. All of them selectedurine diverting dry toilets, to provideprivacy and comfort.In the Swedish capital of Stockholm, urinediversion is used in several urban housing areas, e.g. Palsternackan (50 apartments), Understenshöjden, (44 apartments), Gebers (30 apartments) and thenewest Kullan (250 apartments). Theseare all fami
centralised wastewater treatment system has on the larger system that it operates within. Ecological engineering defined as: "The design of human society with nature for the benefit of both" seeks high system integration and is based on a holistic view (Ref). One of the key disci-plines of ecological engineering is ecological sanitation.
4.3.1 Age and the Ecological Footprint 53 4.3.2 Gender and the Ecological Footprint 53 4.3.3 Travelling Unit and the Ecological Footprint 54 4.3.4 Country of Origin and Ecological Footprint 54 4.3.5 Occupation, Education, Income and the EF 55 4.3.6 Length of Stay and Ecological Footprint 55 4.4 Themes of Ecological Resource Use 56
Introduction 2. History of Wastewater Reuse 3. Motivational Factors for Recycling/Reuse 4. Quality Issues of Wastewater Reuse/Recycling 5. Types of Wastewater Reuse . wastewater treatment, resulted in catastrophic epidemics of waterborne diseases during 1840s and 50s. However, when the water supply links with these diseases became clear, .
Wastewater Reuse Applications 4-1. Wastewater Reuse for Agriculture 4-2. Wastewater Reuse for Industry 4-3. Urban Applications 4-4. Wastewater Reuse for Environmental Water Enhancement 4-5. Groundwater Recharge 5. Key Factors for Establishing Initiatives 6. Building Capacity for Water and Wastewater Reuse 6-1 .
Asian Development Bank A guide for sanitation safety planning in the Philippines: Step-by-step risk management for safe reuse and disposal of wastewater, greywater, and excreta. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2016. 1. Sanitation safety planning. 2. Philippines. 3. Sanitation. 4. Health. I. Asian Development Bank.
Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Framework for Provision and Regulation 2010 The National Water Policy 2000 Statutory Instrument No. 63 2014 . Supply, Sanitation and Solid Waste Management Policy2 is expected to continue the shifting focus and moment for sanitation in Zambia. 2. National institutional arrangements for sanitation in Zambia
A handbook for: Sanitation Managers and Private Sector Players SANITATION iv MARKETING: 1 used in preparation of this Acknowledgement 1.1Although sanitation has begun to gain more recognition, a staggering 2.5 billion Why the hand book people are still without access to improved sanitation2 with majority of those without improved sanitation are living in South and East Asia and sub-Saharan
We focus on two fundamental sanitation challenges: 1. Expanding and improving sanitation without central sewers, because this is -and will be - by far the most common type of sanitation service used by the poor 2. Making sanitation services safe and sustainable by addressing the failure to effectively
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