Experiential Learning In Hospitality Management: An Exploration Of The .
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT: ANEXPLORATION OF THE KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ABILITIESACHIEVED IN A HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM INTERNSHIPA Dissertationpresented tothe Faculty of the Graduate Schoolat the University of Missouri-ColumbiaIn Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the DegreeDoctor of EducationByQUANTELLA ANDERSON-NOTODr. Paul Watkins, Dissertation SupervisorDECEMBER, 2013
The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined thedissertation entitledEXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN HOSPITALITIY MANAGEMENT: ANEXPLORATION OF THE KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ABILITIES ACHIEVED INA HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM INTERNSHIPPresented by Quantella Anderson-NotoA candidate for the degree of Doctor of EducationAnd hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance.Dr. Paul WatkinsDr. William BratbergDr. Lisa BertrandDr. Ruth Ann Roberts
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSIt is with sincere appreciation and thanks that I acknowledge the many individualsthat provided me with guidance and inspiration during my journey to the completion ofmy research.I am deeply indebted to the chair of my committee, Dr. Paul Watkins, for hissupport of my research, his leadership, patience, guidance, and ability to keep the editsand revisions coming back to me at such a rapid pace that I could never escape theprocess; Dr. Bill Bratberg for reminding me that the best dissertation is a completeddissertation, and he seemed to remind me just when I needed it; Dr. Ruth Roberts whotaught me a great deal about education and leadership, as well as helped me clearlyunderstand what epistemology means; and Dr. Lisa Bertrand who was first to ask to joinmy committee and who recruited me into this process by telling me that I should, andcould, do this. She was right.I am grateful to the people in my life that sacrificed my time and attention tocomplete my journey. To my mother, Lula Collins, who taught me to plan my work andwork my plan; my children, Kirkland and Kyle, who always expressed their awe andpride at my commitment and waited patiently for me to finish so they could have theirold mom back, and enjoy the new one. And last, I would like to acknowledge and thankmy husband, Brian, for the countless days and nights of love and support during myjourney. He served as my research assistant, editor, critic, encourager and friend and wasalways in my corner when I was ready to throw in the towel. I could not have done itwithout them.ii
TABLE OF CONTENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . iiChapter1. INTRODUCTION .1Purpose of the Study .4Research Questions.5Conceptual Framework.6Assumptions.9Definition of Terms.10Research Methodology .12Anticipated Outcomes.13Subsequent Chapters.15Summary .162. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .17Purpose.18Research Questions.20Social Construct of Learning .21Individual Learning.24Experiential Learning .27Internships as Experiential Learning .30Internships and Leadership Development.34Leadership Competency Models .38Hospitality Education and Leadership Competency.39Stakeholder Perception .42Summary .443. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.45Research Questions.47Description of Population .48Sampling Procedures .51Design for the Study .51Rationale for the Research Design.52Data Analysis .54Data Collection Methods and Procedures.54Data Analysis Procedures .56Issues of Quality .57iii
Limitations of the Research .59Description of the Researcher.60Ethical Considerations .61Summary .624. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS .63Participant Demographics.64Research Questions.68Five Major Findings Emerged from the Study .69Finding One .71Finding Two.76Finding Three.78Finding Four .82Finding Five .85Summary .885. ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, FINDINGS,CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.90Analytical Category 1: Gains and Gaps in Developing HospitalityManagement Leadership Competencies .92Analytical Category 2: Interpersonal Skill Development andPersonal Growth .96Analytical Category 3: Supervisor’s Perceptions and Evaluations .99Assumptions from Chapter One.101Summary of Interpretation & Findings.102Conclusions and Recommendations .104Perceptions that Leadership Skills were gained but Gaps Remain.104Interpersonal Skills were Gained.105Personal Growth and Change .106Supervisor Perceptions of Leadership Competencies .107Recommendations.108Recommendations for Hospitality Management Interns .108Recommendations for Hospitality Management InternshipAdvisors and Faculty .109Recommendations for Hospitality Management IndustryInternship Supervisors .110Recommendations for Future Research .111REFERENCES .112iv
APPENDICES .119APPENDIX A: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB) LETTER OFAGREEMENT.120APPENDIX B: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB) LETTER OFAPPROVAL .121APPENDIX C: SUBJECT INFORMED CONSENT LETTER .122VITA .124v
Chapter - IIntroductionThe American Hotel and Lodging Industry released the “coffee-table” book titled“A Century of Hospitality, 1910-2010” to commemorate its 100-year anniversary(Vermillion, L., 2010, p. 4). The book highlights the changes and growth that occurredin the tourism and hospitality industry over the last century. The hospitality andtourism industry is currently a multi-billion dollar industry, among the nation’s largestservices export industry and one of America’s largest employers (2011 LodgingIndustry Profile, http:// www.ahla.com). In 2011, 98 million jobs were directly createdin the travel & tourism industry worldwide and, by 2022, the industry is expected todirectly generate 120 million jobs with total employment world wide projected at 328million jobs (Economic Impact of Travel & Tourism Summary 2012, retrieved May25, 2012, http:// wttc.org).To maintain a competitive advantage in a global environment, the hospitalityindustry will need future leaders that have the competencies and skills necessary toadapt to a changing industry. In this increasingly complex industry, senior leadershipmatters and identifying the most critical skills and competencies related to highperforming leaders is crucial (Brownell, 2007). To better facilitate the process ofidentifying important leadership skills, hospitality industry managers and leaders havebegun to use competency models as a tool to identify the crucial knowledge, skills andabilities (KSAs) that hospitality leaders will need for success. The focus ofcompetency models is behavior of the individual rather than personality, which may1
be more difficult to measure. Competency models are used by organizations to helpidentify the behavior needed to perform effectively and successfully and are acommon language for discussing capabilities and performance. Identifying therelevant competencies for industry professionals not only assists with developingfuture leaders, but the process also helps combat the challenges in the recruitment andselection, training and career development, and change management in anorganization (Chung-Herrera, Enz, & Lankau, 2003). The competencies that arecritical for hospitality leaders vary among divisions (lodging, food service, travel, andtourism) yet share a common set of essential competencies for entry-level managers tosenior-level leadership.The concept of knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA’s) focuses on the “corebusiness factors” that research-based information has found to be the leadershipcompetencies that serves as the foundation for job descriptions, management trainingand job performance appraisals in the hospitality industry (Kay & Moncarz, 2004, p.286). Many of the identifiable KSAs can be grouped in “leadership” and“interpersonal” categories, with numerous skills and abilities within those categories.Some of the key knowledge, skills and abilities identified include: human resourcemanagement, information technology, financial management, critical thinking, andcommunication, leadership, marketing skills, time management and industryknowledge (Kay & Moncarz, 2004).Over the years the hospitality industry has realized an increased need for a“leadership style” in managers versus a “control style”, with an emphasis on strategicand corporate skills instead of operational and technical skills (Umbriet, 1993;2
Raybould & Wilkins, 2006). Numerous studies conducted in the 80s and 90s on thecompetencies deemed essential for hotel leaders indicated that “leadership” and“interpersonal” competencies, though broad, ranked highest among the most desirableskills for developing ones leadership style (Johanson, Ghiselli, Shea, & Roberts,2011).Central to the evolution of the industry is the role that hospitality education hasplayed in the advancement of the industry. Specialized hospitality managementprograms have dated back to the 1920s, when Cornell University started the firsthospitality management program, to today, where there are over 200 four-yearinstitutions preparing students to enter the hospitality workforce (Annaraud, 2006).Since the 1920s hospitality educators have leaned on industry leaders for guidanceregarding the essential competencies required of graduates for success (Kay &Russette, 2000) and hospitality management programs have made significantcurricular changes to meet the industry’s perceived evolving needs (Pavesic, 1991).These programs have begun to play a role in developing many of the desiredcompetencies in students and have done so by integrating experiential learningrequirements into the academic curriculum. Experiential learning can take severalforms – internships, service learning and practicum’s – and is believed to be essentialto a quality business education.Hospitality management students who participated in an experiential learningprogram, as compared to those that did not, had a better understanding of howhospitality organization’s function, had an increased ability to adapt to change, anddemonstrated improved leadership and financial management skills (Lee, 2007).3
Integral to developing leadership competencies is the ability to understand how internslearn, and particularly how they shape learning in an experiential learningenvironment. This study will seek to understand the perceptions that interns haveregarding their leadership skills and competencies before and after their experientiallearning experience, as well as discuss the perceptions of the supervisor or manager ofthe intern’s skill development. The perspective of the stakeholders involved in theexperiential learning process - interns and supervisors or mentors – will assist infurthering the process of developing leadership competencies.Purpose of the StudyThe goal of this research is to gain more knowledge regarding the relationshipbetween experiential learning, or internships, and the achievement of leadershipcompetencies. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers(NACE) 2010 Employer Internship Survey, 83.4% of employers surveyed said thatinternship programs help the organization recruit entry-level college graduates(Internship Programs Feed Full-Time Hiring. In Spotlight Online for Employment andRecruiting Professionals, April 28, 2010, http://www.naceweb.org). The survey alsofound a correlation between participating in an internship and staying on the job.Similarly, the NACE 2010 Student Survey found that new graduates who participated inan internship were more likely to receive a job offer than peers who did not participate inan internship. Learning can take many forms, and an internship is one form of activelearning (Solnet, Kralj, Kay & DeVeau, 2009). This type of work-integrated learningprovides participants with the ability to develop specific leadership competencies and4
skills used by effective leaders. John Lechleiter, president and COO of Eli Lilly andCompany, says that the model for leadership development comes from “job experienceintegrated with classroom instruction and leadership activities such as coaching andmentoring” (How Top Companies Breed Stars, October, 2007,http://www.cnnmoney.com).Research QuestionsAn objective of a research question is to “operationalize” the proposed research(Mertens, 2005, p. 344). This study will be used to gain a greater understanding of thecompetencies that interns gain during their experiential learning experience and theirperception of the competencies gained. In order to deliver high-quality, industry-relevanteducation, hospitality management educators must continually identify and investigatecurrent and evolving competencies for future managers and leaders (Kay & Russette,2000). This study will address the following questions:1. How do interns perceive their growth as a leader during their hospitalitymanagement internship experience?2. What are the interns’ perceptions of their communication skills?3. What are the interns’ perceptions of their interpersonal skills?4. What are the interns’ perceptions of their financial management skills?5. What are the interns’ perceptions of their information technology skills?6. What are the interns’ perceptions of their marketing skills?7. What are the supervisor’s perceptions of the leadership competencies andknowledge gained by interns during the internship experience?5
Addressing those questions will provide a framework for exploring experientiallearning in the workplace and the information gathered will be used to gain a greaterunderstanding of the competencies interns gained during their experience.Conceptual FrameworkThe conceptual framework for this study is the exploration of experientiallearning through a social exchange that promotes student understanding of leadershipwithin the context of hospitality management. The experiential learning is achievedthrough the completion of an internship by the students within a hospitality managementprogram. Interns are particularly interesting to study because they operate at two differentcrossroads: in the workplace, where they are expected to be competent workers andpartners in productive activity, and in school, where they are learners in need of newknowledge (Moore, 2007). Conventional learning methods may have ignored the learningprocess that takes place between students in a work experience and particularly thosewho are new to an industry. A learning structure that takes into account interests andexperiences of the student, as well as delivers knowledge, strikes a balance (Dewey,1938). The experiential learning process allows the intern to draw the connectionbetween the workplace and the learning process, and to strike a balance between the two.Leadership, according to Grint (2000) is essentially a social phenomenon;leaders must construct an imaginary community that followers want to join. Ford andLawler (2007) examines the social construction of leadership and suggests that it“requires us to consider how relationships are described and understood by theindividuals involved, using their own language and conversation” (p. 419). The6
experiential learning process in this study provides a social construct for the interns todefine and observe leadership and gain leadership attributes and skills. Few people have aclear definition and understanding of leadership. This is particularly the case with youngstudents who have not had any formal training in leadership (Maxwell & Greenhalgh,2011, p. 107). Billsberry (2009) adopts a socially constructed approach to leadershipeducation. According to Billsberry, a socially constructed theory of leadership educationavoids problems such as disagreements about definitions and offers instructors anopportunity to align theory with pedagogical practice. When students become observersof leadership in action, and have the opportunity to practice through experientiallearning, they can then interpret and assess leadership. The pedagogical application ofleadership education provides for the use of a variety of teaching methods to allowstudents to define their own understanding of leadership, such as experiential learning, orinternship programs. A socially constructed approach to leadership is based on people’sperception – it is in the eye of the beholder. Not what you want it to be, but whatpowerful voices make it (Billsberry, p. 3).One social constructivist approach to experiential learning is “curriculum atwork”. This is the idea of curriculum as a component of workplace learning. The termcurriculum from this perspective means “examining the social and technical means bywhich activities get accomplished: What one needs to know, and how one needs to thinkin order to do the work (Moore, 2004, p. 329). The situation cognition theorists maintainthat “people learn particular kinds of knowledge and skill better and more deeply whenthey actually have to use it in the performance of work” (Moore, p. 331). Several factorscan shape the participants workplace learning experience: internal features of the7
organization, personal features of the participants and the external environment. Thespecific workplace environment common to the interns in a hospitality managementprogram is working in the service industry. The hospitality industry is a service-based,versus manufacturing-based, industry. To maintain a competitive advantage, the serviceindustry, and by definition the hospitality industry, must maintain high productivitylevels for competitive survival.The qualitative approach to analysis that will be used is case study research. Acase study is “an intensive description and analysis of a bounded social phenomenon, ormultiple bounded phenomena, such as a program or a process” (Bloomberg & Volpe,2012, p. 31). The nature of this research fits the case study format, specifically acollective case study, as the study involves multiple interns providing their perception ofthe internship experience within a specific hospitality management program. Case studyresearch involves a detailed description of a setting and its’ participants, accompanied byan analysis of data for themes, patterns and issues (Merriam et. al, 1998). Case studyresearch is distinguished by the size of the bounded case (Creswell, 2007, p. 74) and theresearch is bounded by the number of students, time and place. One of the implications ofmultiple realities is that the research questions may change s the study evolves and theprogresses. The questions may be shaped by the background of the participants and thecontext under which they are participating.Case study research was chosen because it will allow for cross-case analysis. Asdetailed descriptions of themes within each case emerge, this form of research willprovide for “with-in” case analysis and “cross-case analysis” (Bloomberg & Volpe, p.31). Thematic analysis allows the researcher to understand the complexity of the cases8
and to not generalize the research but rather have a goal of transferability. Transferabilitywill allow the researcher to understand how, if at all, the knowledge can be applied tosimilar contexts and the likely applicability of findings to other situations under similar,but not identical, conditions (Patton, 1990).Almost all hospitality and tourism programs include either as mandatory or asan elective, an internship (Zopiatis & Constanti, 2012, p. 44). However, Lam andChang’s study (as cited in Zopiatis and Constanti) inform us that interns’ expectationsstill may not be met. Alpert et al., (2007) and Walo (2001) emphasized the need forclarity of internship goals and to review if the internship is meaningful to the majorstakeholders – the interns and the host organization. As a result of this research, we maygain more insight as to how to create a more meaningful experience for the interns. Wemay also better understand the construct of knowledge through the eyes of the interns andexplore how the experiential learning environment impacted their perspective ofleadership in the hospitality industry.AssumptionsThere are several assumptions that will be considered regarding the approach tothis study. As learning may be considered to be the enactment of permanent changewithin an individual (George, 1999), one assumption is that the interns will be different atthe completion of their internship from their program introduction. As the internsparticipate in several learning activities that are designed to integrate their knowledgewith the newly gained experience, the experiential learning loop of knowledge,9
experience and self-reflection may yield a change in the intern’s personal andprofessional awareness and development (Tesone, 2004).Another assumption of this research is that the supervisors and mentors thatparticipate in the experiential learning program are competent in their ability to evaluatethe interns in a meaningful way and give relative feedback. The supervisors at theorganizations chosen by the interns for participation should be able to effectively design,coordinate and supervise a meaningful experiential learning program. It is assumed thatthe supervisors are aware of the range of competencies that the intern is trying to achieve,and the supervisor should be able to effectively guide the intern, and properly evaluatethe competencies gained.Definition of TermsHospitality ManagementThe word hospitality means “the reception and entertainment of guests, visitorsor strangers with liberality and good will” (Oxford English Dictionary) and historicallyreferred to institutions that provide shelter, food, or both, to people away from theirhomes. The term refers to the range of occupations and professional practices associatedwith the administration of hotels, resorts and other lodging facilities, foodservice, traveland tourism, meetings and special events.Experiential LearningVarious terms have been used to define experiential learning. Kolb (1984)states that “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through thetransformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping10
experience and transforming it” (p. 41). Hoover and Whitehead (1975) provides thefollowing definition: Experiential learning exists when a personally responsibleparticipant cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally processes knowledge, skills and/orattitudes in a learning situation characterized by a high level of active involvement (p.25). The experiential learning component can take on many forms, including internships,practicums, distance-learning, and service projects (Clark & Webb-White, 2010, p. 110).InternshipAn internship is a form of experiential learning that integrates knowledge andtheory learned in the classroom with practical application and skills development in aprofessional setting. Internships give students the opportunity to gain valuable appliedexperience and make connections in professional fields they are considering for careerpaths and give employers the opportunity to guide and evaluate talent (NACE PositionStatement on Internships, 2011). An internship is a program designed to provide anexperiential learning experience whereby students acquire knowledge and skills in theirchosen field of study (Southeast Missouri State University Hospitality ManagementInternship Policies & Procedures, 2012).Knowledge, Skills and Abilities (KSA)Knowledge, skills and abilities are desirable attributes for current and futuremanagers for success in hospitality management. Kay and Moncarz (2004) propose thatthe KSA’s that are most important for management success are divided into fourdomains, with additional areas for development in each domain. The four main domainsare human resource management, marketing, financial management and informationtechnology.11
Research MethodologyThe best research method to gain an understanding of the questions posed is aqualitative research method. As Merriam (1998) states, qualitative research is “designedto inductively build rather than to test concepts, hypotheses and theories” (p. 45), and thisstudy will build upon the concept that experiential learning is a way for students toachieve skills that are valuable to the continuing success of the hospitality industry. Theprominent characteristics of qualitative research design include: the ability to gain morein depth information that may be difficult to convey quantitatively; the ability to usenatural settings as the source of data; and qualitative research has an “emergent” nature,as opposed to a predetermined design (Hoepfl, 997). For practical purposes, thequalitative approach is wise because no valid, appropriate quantitative methods seemfeasible to measure the outcomes achieved in the experiential learning process or tomeasure the reflection provided by the individual participants (Mertens, 2005).The qualitative approach best suited for this study is constructivism. Lincolnand Guba (2000) identified three questions that help define a paradigm – ontological,epistemological, and methodological - and constructivist researchers use this paradigm asa way to interpret the meaning of something from a certain situation or individualstandpoint (Mertens, p. 9). According to constructivists approach, the goal of research isto understand the multiple social construct
in the travel & tourism industry worldwide and, by 2022, the industry is expected to . marketing skills, time management and industry knowledge (Kay & Moncarz, 2004). Over the years the hospitality industry has realized an increased need for a . hospitality management program, to today, where there are over 200 four-year .
innovators, a philosophy of education based on a philosophy of experience. John Dewey, Experience and Education This inaugural issue of Experiential Learning & Teaching in Higher Education marks a milestone in the growing awareness and use of experiential learning as a learning platform in education. Since the early 1970s, the principles and
3. Hospitality Services III—Course Code: 992104 4. Hospitality Services IV—Course Code: 992105 Course Description: Hospitality Services I. This course introduces students to the hospitality and tourism industry and identifies some of the current and future trends affecting the hospitality and tourism industry and the impact this
To the Revised Edition T his revised edition of Experiential Learning is the most comprehensive and up to date statement of experiential learning theory (ELT), a work that marks the cen-terpiece of my 50-year academic career. My involvement with experiential learn-ing has been one of the most stimulating and rewarding associations of my adult life.
Hospitality & Tourism 110 GCO 1 Introduction to the Hospitality and Tourism Industry Specific Curriculum Outcomes: Students will be expected to: identify what hospitality and tourism is and why it is the largest industry in the world. be the guests and experience true hospitality. outline the history of the hospitality and tourism industry
Experiential Learning: Learning through Reflective Practice . Karen Roland . University of Windsor, Canada . Abstract . Experiential learning is a means to enhance student learning by providing the opportunity, through reflective practice, for students to develop knowledge and apply theory in practice. Based on
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Demonstrate the ability to meet the goals of a training plan in a coordinated externship experience in a hospitality setting o Hospitality and Restaurant Management: HOSP 280 Identify the dynamics of hospitality specific leadership and management activities that effectively engage work teams in successful hospitality operations.
Introduction to Quantum Field Theory John Cardy Michaelmas Term 2010 { Version 13/9/10 Abstract These notes are intendedtosupplementthe lecturecourse ‘Introduction toQuan-tum Field Theory’ and are not intended for wider distribution. Any errors or obvious omissions should be communicated to me at j.cardy1@physics.ox.ac.uk. Contents 1 A Brief History of Quantum Field Theory 2 2 The Feynman .
