Essential Guide To Qualitative In Organizational Research

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Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage iESSENTIAL GUIDE TO QUALITATIVE METHODSIN ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage ii

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage iiiESSENTIAL GUIDE TO QUALITATIVE METHODSIN ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCHEdited byCatherine Cassell and Gillian SymonSAGE PublicationsLondon Thousand Oaks New Delhi

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage iv Catherine Cassell and Gillian Symon 2004First published 2004Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, orcriticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and PatentsAct, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in anyform, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of thepublishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with theterms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiriesconcerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers.SAGE Publications Ltd1 Oliver’s YardLondon EC1 1SPSAGE Publications Inc.2455 Teller RoadThousand Oaks, California 91320SAGE Publications India Pvt LtdB-42, Panchsheel EnclavePost Box 4109New Delhi 100 017British Library Cataloguing in Publication dataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 0 7619 4887 2ISBN 0 7619 4888 0 (pbk)Library of Congress Control Number availableTypeset by M RulesPrinted and bound in Great Britain by The Athenaeum Press, Gateshead

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage vThis book is dedicated to our children,Matt, Danny, Caitlin and Jamie.They have been our best distraction from this work.

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage vi

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage viiContentsNotes on contributorsAcknowledgements1 Promoting new research practices in organizational researchGillian Symon and Catherine Cassellxixix12 Using interviews in qualitative researchNigel King113 Electronic interviews in organizational researchStephanie J. Morgan and Gillian Symon234 Life historiesGill Musson345 Critical incident techniqueElizabeth Chell456 Repertory gridsCatherine Cassell and Susan Walsh617 Cognitive mapping in organizational researchSeonaidh McDonald, Kevin Daniels and Claire Harris738 The Twenty Statements TestAnne Rees and Nigel Nicholson869 Qualitative research diariesGillian Symon9810 Stories in organizational researchYiannis Gabriel and Dorothy S Griffiths11411 Pictorial representationDavid R Stiles127

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amviii –––––––––– C O N T E N T SPage �––––––––––––––12 Group methods of organizational analysisChris Steyaert and René Bouwen14013 Participant observationDavid Waddington15414 Analytic inductionPhil Johnson16515 Critical research and analysis in organizationsKate Mackenzie Davey and Andreas P D Liefooghe18016 Hermeneutic understandingJohn McAuley19217 Discourse analysisPenny Dick20318 Talk-in-interaction/conversation analysisDalvir Samra-Fredericks21419 Attributional codingJo Silvester22820 Grounded theory in organizational researchHannakaisa Länsisalmi, José-María Peiró and Mika Kivimäki24221 Using templates in the thematic analysis of textNigel King25622 Using data matricesSara Nadin and Catherine Cassell27123 Preserving, sharing and reusing data from qualitative research:methods and strategiesLouise Corti, Paul Thompson and Janet Fink28824 Historical analysis of company documentsMichael Rowlinson30125 EthnographyJohn D Brewer31226 Case study researchJean Hartley32327 Soft systems analysis: reflections and updateSusan Walsh and Chris Clegg334

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage ��––––––––––––––– C O N T E N T S ––––––––––ix28 Action research and research action: a family of methodsFrank Heller34929 Co-research: insider/outsider teams for organizational researchJohn Benington and Jean Hartley36130 The future conferenceFran Ryan372Index385

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Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage xiNotes on ContributorsJohn Benington is Professor of Public Policy and Management at Warwick Business School,Warwick University, and Director of the Institute of Governance and Public Management. Hisresearch interests are in public value, civic leadership, multi-level governance, and interorganizational networks. His methodological interests are in action-research, co-research, andformative evaluation. Before becoming an academic he tried to practise what he now teaches.Fifteen years as a manager in the public and voluntary sectors taught him that things often workbetter in practice than in theory.René Bouwen holds a PhD in psychology and is Professor of Organizational Psychology andGroup Dynamics at the Catholic University in Leuven, Belgium. He is doing research ondealing with knowledge differences in organizations, innovation and change processes, groupdevelopment and group effectiveness. Social change practices and multi-party collaborationare studied from a relational constructionist perspective.John D. Brewer is Professor of Sociology at Queen’s University of Belfast. He was VisitingFellow at Yale University (1989), St John’s College, Oxford (1992), Corpus Christi College,Cambridge (2002) and the Research School of the Social Sciences, Australian NationalUniversity, Canberra (2003). He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts in 1998and an Academician in the Academy of Social Sciences in 2003. He is author and co-authorof 13 books, including Inside the RUC (Oxford University Press), After Soweto (OxfordUniversity Press), Black and Blue: Policing in South Africa (Oxford University Press), Crime inIreland 1945–95 (Oxford University Press ), Police, Public Order and the State (Macmillan), AntiCatholicism in Northern Ireland 1660–1997 (Macmillan) and Ethnography (Open UniversityPress). He is editor of Can South Africa Survive and Restructuring South Africa (both withMacmillan) and co-editor of the A–Z of Social Research (Sage).Catherine Cassell is Professor of Organizational Psychology and Director of Research inthe Management School at the University of Sheffield. Her research interests are in the areasof organizational change and development and managing diversity. Catherine has had a longterm interest in issues of research methodology, particularly in relation to qualitative methods.She has collaborated with Gillian Symon over a number of years to produce books, articlesand conference contributions about the use of qualitative methods in organizational research.Elizabeth Chell is Professor of Entrepreneurship and Director of the Institute forEntrepreneurship, at the University of Southampton. Previously she held the Rory Brooks Chairof Enterprise at UMIST and the Chair of Enterprise, the University of Manchester. She haspublished extensively in entrepreneurship, organizational behaviour and research methods. Herlatest book is Entrepreneurship: Globalization, Innovation and Development published by ThomsonLearning, 2001. She has recently contributed an entry on the critical incident technique in The

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amxii –––––––––– C O N T R I B U T O R SPage –––––––––––Encyclopaedia of Research Methods in the Social Sciences edited by M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman andT. Futing Liao, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. She is currently working on a revised editionof her 1991 research monograph The Entrepreneurial Personality:Concepts, Cases and Categoriespublished by Routledge. Her current research interests focus on nascent entrepreneurship, womenand science enterprise and technological entrepreneurship.Chris Clegg is Professor of Organizational Psychology and Deputy Director of the Instituteof Work Psychology at the University of Sheffield. He is a Co-Director of the ESRC Centrefor Organization and Innovation, and Co-Director of the BAE/Rolls-Royce UniversityTechnology Partnership for Design. He currently chairs the Sociotechnical Specialist Groupof the British Computer Society. He holds a BA (honours) in psychology from the Universityof Newcastle-on-Tyne and an MSc in business administration from the University of Bradford.He is a Fellow of the British Psychological Society, Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, anda chartered psychologist. Chris’s research interests are in the areas of new technology, ebusiness, work organization, information and control systems, sociotechnical theory and newmanagement practices. He has published his work in a number of books and journals.Louise Corti is an Associate Director and Head of the Qualidata and Outreach and Trainingsections of the UK Economic and Social Data Service based at the UK Data Archive, at theUniversity of Essex. In the past she has taught sociology, social research methods and statistics,and spent six years working on the design, implementation and analysis of the BritishHousehold Panel Study also based at the University of Essex. She has authored a virtualtutorial for social research methods and published in the area of sharing and re-using qualitativedata. She is interested in a broad range of methodological and data quality issues acrossqualitative and quantitative social research, and in the use of data in teaching and learning.Kevin Daniels is Professor of Organizational Psychology at Loughborough UniversityBusiness School. He received his PhD in Applied Psychology from Cranfield Institute ofTechnology. His research interests are concerned broadly with the relationships betweenemotion and cognition in organizations. He has published papers in journals such as HumanRelations, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Journal of Management Studies,Organization Studies and the Strategic Management Journal. He is an Associate Editor of theJournal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology.Penny Dick is a Lecturer in Organizational Behaviour at Sheffield University ManagementSchool. She is a chartered occupational psychologist with a wide array of industrialexperience. Her research interests and publications are in the management of diversity andorganizational stress, particularly in emergency service settings.Janet Fink is Lecturer in Social Policy at the Open University. Her research interests arecentred on the turn in contemporary social policy and the intersections of family life andwelfare discourses during the second half of the 20th Century. Her recent publications includethe book Rethinking European Welfare (co-edited with Gail Lewis and John Clarke) and thejournal articles ‘Private lives, public issues: moral panics and the “family”’ (Journal for the Studyof British Cultures) and ‘Europe’s cold shoulder: migration and the constraints of welfare inFortress Europe’ (Soundings).

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage �–––––––––– C O N T R I B U T O R S –––––––––– xiiiYiannis Gabriel is Professor in Organizational Theory, Tanaka Business School, ImperialCollege, London, having taught previously at Bath University. He has a degree in MechanicalEngineering from Imperial College London, where he also carried out postgraduate studiesin industrial sociology. He has a PhD in sociology from the University of California atBerkeley. His main research interests are in organizational and psychoanalytic theories,consumer studies, storytelling, folklore and culture. His latest book Storytelling in Organizations,looks into organizational folklore as a window into organizational culture and politics. Otherpublications include articles on computer folklore, organizational nostalgia, chaos andcomplexity in organizations, fantasies of organizational members about their leaders,organizational insults and research methodology using stories and narratives. He has beeneditor of the journal Management Learning and is associate editor of Human Relations.Dorothy Griffiths is Professor of Human Resource Management and Deputy Principal of theTanaka Business School at Imperial College, London. She has a degree in sociology from Londonand an MSc in the sociology of science and technology from the University of Bath. Her recentwork has focused on gender, science and technology and on a critique of the concept of corecompetencies. With other colleagues she is currently working on the transfer of managementlearning to practice. She is an editor of Feminist Review and Chair of the Feminist Review Trust.Claire Harris is a Research Associate at the Health Organizations Research Centre, Universityof Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. Her main research interests are cognitionand emotion and organizational change. She is currently researching aspects of organizationalchange within the health care sector, in particular implementation of electronic patient recordsand changes in working time for junior doctors within the NHS. She is also a facilitator for theLeadership Through Effective Human Resource Management programme at UMIST. Clairehas previously worked on a Health and Safety Executive funded project exploring the risks ofstress from a cognitive perspective at the University of Sheffield and the University ofNottingham.Jean Hartley is Professor of Organizational Analysis, Warwick Business School, Universityof Warwick, UK. She is also an ESRC Advanced Institute of Management Research (AIM)Public Service Fellow. Jean is responsible for the Local Government Centre’s researchprogrammes on organizational change, leadership and learning in public service organizations.She is the Research Director of the team monitoring and evaluating the Beacon CouncilScheme (concerned with inter-organizational learning and corporate and serviceimprovement). She has undertaken both formative and summative evaluations for governmenton programmes of service and organizational improvement and change in local public services.Her work on leadership includes developing a self-assessment instrument for politicalleadership. She has published three books and many articles on organizational psychology,public service improvement, and organizational change. She has written a number of articleson methods in organizational research, including case studies, employee surveys and coresearch.Frank Heller originally qualified in engineering followed by economics and psychology. Hewas Head of the Department of Management in what is now the University of Westminster,followed by a six year assignment as consultant to the International Labour Office and the

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amxiv –––––––––– C O N T R I B U T O R SPage –––––––––––United Nations Special Program in Argentina and Chile. He was visiting Professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley and Stanford University, Hangzhou University China andthe University of Santiago, Chile. He joined the Tavistock Institute in London in 1969 andfounded the Centre for Decision Making Studies, of which he is a Director. The Centre isa European network of cross-national researchers who have carried out large programmes ofinvestigation on the distribution of influence and human resource utilization in organizationsin 14 countries.Phil Johnson is a Principal Lecturer and Research Fellow in the School of Business and Financeat Sheffield Hallam University. He has undertaken and published research mainly in the areas ofepistemology, methodology, management control, change management and business ethics. Hehas recently undertaken management research projects sponsored by ESRC and EPSRC. He hasexperience of the supervision of management research projects from first degree to doctorate.Nigel King has a first degree in social psychology from the University of Kent at Canterbury,and a PhD from the University of Sheffield. He is currently a Reader in Psychology at theUniversity of Huddersfield. His main research interests are: creativity, innovation and changein organizations; social and organizational psychological aspects of primary care;phenomenological and other qualitative approaches in psychology; paranormal beliefs andexperiences. He is the author (with Neil Anderson) of Managing Innovation and Change: ACritical Guide for Organizations (Thomson Learning, 2002) as well as numerous book chaptersand journal articles.Mika Kivimäki, PhD, is a Professor of Occupational Health Psychology in the Universityof Helsinki and the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Finland. His current researchinterests relate to the role of psychosocial factors in the aetiology of cardiovascular disease,musculoskeletal disorders and depression.Hannakaisa Länsisalmi, is Business Development Manager of Rautaruukki Group, a largeinternational steel company. She is also a Research Fellow at the University of Helsinki. Hercurrent research interests relate to innovation in organizations. She has worked previously asa business consultant at Accenture and the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health.Andreas Liefooghe is an Organizational Psychologist at the Department of OrganizationalPsychology, Birkbeck, University of London. His main research interests are bullying at work,voice, discourse and power and the notion of morale and well-being at work. He uses a varietyof methodologies in his work, with a main emphasis on qualitative methods.John McAuley is Professor of Organization Development and Management in the Schoolof Business and Finance, Sheffield Hallam University. He is Assistant Director (ResearchCoordination). His most recent research has been into the ways in which professionals inorganizations respond to issues of change. He has published in the areas of changemanagement, organization behaviour and the work of professionals. He has undertakenmanagement and organizational consultancies in a wide range of public and private sectororganizations. He has trained as a psychotherapist and uses insights acquired from this indeveloping understanding of behaviour in organizational settings.

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage ��––––––––– C O N T R I B U T O R S –––––––––– xvSeonaidh McDonald is a Senior Research Fellow at Aberdeen Business School, RobertGordon University. She has two main fields of interest. The first centres on a range of closelyrelated strategic issues such as the management of change, organizational learning, innovationand knowledge management. She has an interest in studying the strategy making processesthemselves as well as their content and outcomes. Her other area of interest is wastemanagement. Her research in this field is also concerned with change, but focuses on thehousehold rather than the organization. This work aims to understand, and to increase, publicparticipation in domestic waste recycling schemes.Kate Mackenzie Davey is a Lecturer in Organizational Psychology at BirkbeckCollege,University of London. She has published work on socialization, identity, valuechange, culture and bullying at work. She is interested in discursive and multi-methodapproaches to organizational processes especially the role of marginality in theindividual–organizational relationship. Her current interests are in gender and perceptions oforganizational politics, consultancy and contract work and the role of communication inorganizations.Stephanie Morgan is currently an Associate Lecturer at Birkbeck College, University ofLondon, and Director of Crosslight IT Consulting Ltd. She has a BSc in psychology and anMSc in organizational behaviour, and received her PhD in organizational attachments in IToutsourcing at Birkbeck. Her current research interests and recent publications include issuesaround remote management, outsourcing transitions and technology related organizationalchange. Her focus on methodology includes the use of technology in research, longitudinalqualitative analysis, and the development of process models.Gill Musson is a Lecturer and Researcher in OB/HRM at Sheffield University ManagementSchool. She has published in the areas of managing change in clinical and manufacturingcontexts: the role of language in reflecting and structuring realities; and more recently on thedynamics of home based teleworking. She is co-author of Understanding Organizations ThroughLanguage (Sage, 2003), reflecting an overriding interest in language and meaning making andtheir role in organizational processes.Sara Nadin is a Research Fellow at Sheffield University Management School. She hasrecently completed her PhD, the focus of which was the psychological contract in smallbusinesses. Prior to commencing her PhD Sara worked on a number of projects concernedwith change management and innovation in SMEs. As well as her specialist interest in thestudy of small businesses, her other interests include job design and research methods.Nigel Nicholson is Professor of Organizational Behaviour at London Business School. Hehas been pioneering the application of evolutionary psychology to business in many writingsincluding ‘How hardwired is human behavior’ for the Harvard Business Review (1998) andin his book Managing the Human Animal (Texere, 2000). Recent work includes an in-depthstudy of risk and decision-making among traders in the City of London. His currentresearch focuses on leadership in family firms, and the role of personality in executivedevelopment.

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amxvi –––––––––– C O N T R I B U T O R SPage –––––––––––José-M. Peiró, PhD, is Professor of Social and Organizational Psychology at the Universityof Valencia and Director of the Department of Psychobiology and Social Psychology. Heserved as President of the European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology andis currently President-elect of the Division 1 (Organizational Psychology) of the IAAP. Heis also associate editor of the European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. He haspublished several books and articles on collective stress at work, burnout, work socialization,and organizational climate.Anne Rees is presently a Senior Research Fellow in the School of Psychology at theUniversity of Leeds. She received her MA in Linguistics from the University of Sheffield(1983). In addition to her interest in how ideas of the self can be assessed, she is engaged inresearch into effective psychotherapeutic treatments for depression and enduring and severepsychological disorders.Michael Rowlinson is Professor of Organization Studies in the Centre for BusinessManagement, Queen Mary, University of London. His research interests are in organizationtheory, critical management studies, and the emerging field of organizational history. Hislast book, Organizations and Institutions (1997), provides an overview and sociologicalcritique of economic theories of organization, including game theory, agency theory,property rights and transaction costs. In a series of articles he has explored the tensionsbetween organization studies and business history. He recently co-edited and contributedtwo articles for a themed section of the journal Organization (2002, 9(4)) on ‘Foucault,management and history’. His current research, funded by the ESRC under the Evolutionof Business Knowledge Programme, explores the relation between documentary corporatehistory and knowledge management, examining how companies use historical knowledgeof the past in the present.Fran Ryan is a chartered occupational psychologist with over 20 years’ experience inorganization and community work. She has a strong background in recruitment anddevelopment but now concentrates her work on two broad areas: participative strategicplanning for organizations and communities, and participative organization design (wherepeople redesign their organization to be optimal). She was co-author, with Robert Rehm(2002) of Futures that Work, and a contributing author to People in Charge edited by RobertRehm (Hawthorn Press, 1999), a book about self-managing teams and organizations. She iscurrently researching the future conference at Oxford Brookes University.Dalvir Samra-Fredericks is a Lecturer at Nottingham Business School and a visitingresearch fellow at the Management School, Keele University. Her research interest is in thenature of managerial elites’ everyday rhetorical–relational dynamics, in particular, theirlinguistic skills, forms of knowledge and modes of rationalities for shaping strategic directionand simultaneously accomplishing identity and ‘organization’. Associated interests arising fromthis are: extending the ethnographic approach to include recording ‘real time’ interactions anddeveloping a critical pedagogy within management studies. She has recently published inCorporate Governance, Journal of Management Studies and Management Learning.

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage �–––––––––– C O N T R I B U T O R S –––––––––– xviiJo Silvester is Professor of Occupational Psychology and Director of the OccupationalPsychology Research Group at Goldsmiths College, University of London. She holds degreesfrom the Universities of London, York and Leeds and has lectured at the University of Leeds,the University of Wales Swansea, and City University London. Her main research interestsconcern how we judge competence in others – particularly in relation to employee selectionand assessment – and the influence of stereotyping, culture and diversity. Her current workincludes ESRC sponsored research into leadership and diversity in investment banking, andthe psychological determinants of empathy in general practitioners. In addition, recent workhas centred on developing fair selection procedures for parliamentary candidates; a projectaimed at increasing the number of women and ethnic minorities who become MPs. Jo haspublished widely in the field of employee selection and assessment. She is an associate editorfor the International Journal of Selection and Assessment and the Journal of Occupational andOrganizational Psychology.Chris Steyaert is Professor of Organizational Psychology at the University of St Gallen. Afterreceiving his doctoral dissertation in Psychology from the Catholic University, Leuven(Belgium), he was attached to the Institute of Organization and Industrial Sociology,Copenhagen Business School, Denmark and to the Entrepreneurship and Small BusinessResearch Institute (ESBRI), Stockholm, Sweden. He has published in international journalsand books in the area of entrepreneurship and organizational innovation. His research themesinclude organizing creativity, diversity management and difference, language and translation,forms of performing/writing research and the politics of entrepreneurship and humanorganization.David Stiles is a Lecturer in Strategy and Marketing at Cardiff Business School, CardiffUniversity, having completed a BSc in Bath University and an MBA and PhD at Cardiff. Hepreviously worked as a strategist, economist and marketer in financial services and economicdevelopment. His research and consultancy work centres on strategy making andimplementation in the private and public sectors. Major recent publications involve strategyin higher education and the police, joint ventures and culture in developing countries, andorganizational image and identity. This includes the development and application of newmethodologies in pictorial representation.Gillian Symon is Senior Lecturer in Organizational Psychology in the Department ofOrganizational Psychology, Birkbeck College, University of London. Her main researchinterests lie in the areas of technological change at work and research practice. She andCatherine Cassell have collaborated over many years in producing articles, book chapters andconference papers that challenge traditional research practices in their discipline and seek toencourage both reflexivity in research and the use of innovative research methods.Paul Thompson is Research Professor in Sociology at the University of Essex. He is authorof many books using the life story/oral method, including The Voice of the Past, The Edwardians,Living the Fishing, I Don’t Feel Old, and Growing Up in Stepfamilies. He is Founding Editor ofOral History. He was founding director of Qualidata and he is Founder of the National LifeStory Collection at the British Library National Sound Archive.

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amxviii –––––––––– C O N T R I B U T O R SPage ��–––––––––––David Waddington is Reader in Cultural Studies at Sheffield Hallam University. His mainresearch interests are: industrial relations, the policing of public order, and the sociology ofmining communities.Sue Walsh is a Senior Clinical Tutor on the Doctorate in Clinical Psychology course atSheffield University and a consultant clinical psychologist in cognitive analytic therapy. Heracademic and practitioner interests lie in the interface between clinical and organizationalpsychology.

Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage xixAcknowledgementsIt has been 10 years since we first set off on our quest to raise the profile of qualitativemethods. In seeking to achieve this goal, we have been reliant on the expertise andcommitment of our contributors. Our thanks go to all those who have given full and frankaccounts of their own research practices in all our volumes, and who have unfailinglyresponded to the demands we have made of them. We also wish to thank Brian and Bill, forall their support, encouragement and affection.

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Essential Guide to QM 2nd17/3/0411:16 amPage 11 –––– Promoting New Research Practices in OrganizationalResearch ��–––

the book Rethinking European Welfare(co-edited with Gail Lewis and John Clarke) and the journal articles 'Private lives, public issues: moral panics and the "family"' (Journal for the Study of British Cultures) and 'Europe's cold shoulder: migration and the constraints of welfare in Fortress Europe' (Soundings).

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