Generation And Management Of Municipal Solid Waste . - Fraser Institute
2021GENERATION AND MANAGEMENTOF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTEHow’s Canada Doing?Jairo Yunis and Elmira Aliakbari
July 2021Fraser InstituteGeneration and Managementof Municipal Solid Waste:How’s Canada Doing?by Jairo Yunis and Elmira Aliakbari
ContentsExecutive Summary / iIntroduction/1Waste generation, disposal, and diversion in Canada/ 4Waste generation, disposal, and diversion in Canadian provincesConclusionReferences// 1120/ 21About the Authors/ 24Acknowledgments/ 24Publishing Information/ 25Supporting the Fraser Institute / 26Purpose, Funding, and IndependenceAbout the Fraser Institute/ 26/ 27Peer review —validating the accuracy of our research / 27Editorial Advisory Board/ 28fraserinstitute.org
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Yunis and Aliakbari Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? iExecutive SummarySolid waste affects people’s health and the environment surrounding them. Poorly managed solid waste accumulates in local bodies of water, oceans, and forests, degrading ourecosystems and negatively impacting human health. Therefore, appropriate managementof solid waste is a particularly important public policy goal. This study examines the stateand evolution of the generation and management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)—more commonly known as trash or garbage—in Canada over the past two decades, usingofficial data and government reports.Overall, as Canada’s population and economy grew between 2002 and 2018, sodid total waste generation. Canadians generated 35.5 million tonnes of MSW in 2018—16percent more than in 2002 when 30.7 million tonnes were generated. However, when weaccount for population and economic activity, Canadians are generating less waste overtime—2 percent less on a per-capita basis and 23 percent less per unit of GDP in 2018compared to 2002. The fact that Canada’s waste generation rate grew more slowly thanits GDP from 2002 to 2018 suggests that Canada has partially decoupled waste generation from economic growth.While per-capita waste generation is declining in Canada, data shows that solidwaste generation from residential sources is on the rise and now makes up over 40 percent of total waste generated. On the other hand, waste generation from non-residential sources—which include industrial, commercial, and institutional sources—declinedbetween 2002 and 2016.Similarly, Canadians are disposing of less waste over time—10 percent less on aper-capita basis and 29 percent less per unit of GDP in 2018 compared to 2002.In addition, waste diversion has steadily increased in Canada. In 2018, about 28percent of MSW was diverted in Canada—chiefly comprised of paper fibres and organics—compared to almost 22 percent in 2002. In 2018, the remaining 72 percent of waste,which is largely comprised of food and plastics, was disposed of mostly in landfills. Overall,Canada’s waste management still relies on landfills despite significant increases in diversion rates.Furthermore, while most Canadian provinces have reduced waste generation anddisposal over time (relative to economic activity and population), progress varies. NewBrunswick saw the greatest increase in per-person waste generation and disposal (20percent and 19 percent respectively), going from 726 kg of solid waste generated perperson and 552 kg of solid waste disposed per person in 2002 to 872 kilograms of wastegenerated and 659 kg of waste disposed in 2018. On the other hand, British Columbiasaw one of the highest declines in these metrics, with a 7 percent decrease in generationand a 17 percent decrease in disposal. Following British Columbia, Quebec and Ontarioalso made notable progress, reducing per-person waste generation by 3 percent and 5fraserinstitute.org
ii Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? Yunis and Aliakbaripercent, respectively, and by reducing their waste disposal per person figures by 16 percent and 12 percent, respectively.Overall, Nova Scotia and British Columbia have the lowest disposal rates in thecountry, relative to both economic activity and population, while Manitoba has one ofthe highest.Similarly, almost all provinces increased their diversion rates (i.e., the amountof MSW diverted as a proportion of waste generated) since 2002, with the exceptionsof Manitoba and Alberta. Nova Scotia, which increased its diversion rate by 12 percentbetween 2002 and 2018, has the highest diversion rate in the country with almost half ofits total amount of waste generated diverted from landfills. British Columbia is a closesecond with a diversion rate of almost 40 percent while Newfoundland and Labradorhas the lowest diversion rate, at 10 percent. The largest provinces, Ontario and Quebec,have diversion rates of 25 percent and 33 percent, respectively.Overall, the evidence illustrates that, when we account for population and economic activity, Canada has generated and disposed of less waste over the past two decades. On balance, the fact that Canada partially decoupled solid waste generation and disposal from economic growth is good news for the environment. Moreover, the country’sprogress in reducing per-capita solid waste disposal and waste disposal intensity, pairedwith increasing diversion rates, speaks volumes for Canada’s stellar environmental performance and builds on its already impressive environmental track record.fraserinstitute.org
Yunis and Aliakbari Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? 11. IntroductionWhat is Solid Waste And How Do We Manage It?Solid waste is one of those topics that impacts every one of us. We all generate waste insome form or another. But we don’t usually stop and think about the details of how muchwaste we generate, where it goes, and the impact it has on the environment. Over thelast few decades, however, there has been an increasing awareness campaign focusing onreducing, reusing, and recycling solid waste—commonly called the three Rs—in Canadaand worldwide. Additionally, reducing solid waste became a key environmental performance metric after the adoption of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals.Solid waste, in broad terms, refers to discarded materials generated from economic activity. It can be hazardous or non-hazardous in nature and is generated frommany sources including industrial, residential, commercial, and institutional. Generally,solid waste can be characterized into two categories depending on the source and endof-life generation stage. Upstream waste is generated when resources are processed intomaterial and goods, while downstream waste is generated after goods or materials areconsumed (Ecofiscal Commission, 2018). In this report we focus on downstream solidwaste, which is commonly known as Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). [1]MSW includes waste generated by residential and industrial, commercial and institutional (ICI) sources. It is primarily non-hazardous; however, it includes small quantities of hazardous materials (residential and non-residential) that require specializedcollection, treatment, and disposal (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021).Examples of MSW include food scraps, electronics, used packaging, old computers,newspapers, and food waste generated by businesses and households.Generally, municipalities have two main alternatives to manage MSW: disposaland diversion. [2] Waste disposal refers to how we get rid of the MSW that is generated,whether by transporting it to landfills (an open site or facility where waste is stored) orincinerating it in waste-to-energy facilities, municipal wastewater sludge incinerators,or biomedical incinerators. Solid waste diversion, on the other hand, refers to the preparation of MSW for recycling, composting, and re-using activities (Environment andClimate Change Canada, 2018a; Statistics Canada, 2018).Overall, poorly managed solid waste can have a negative impact on public healthand the environment. Waste management and recycling programs are costly but contribute to the public good by directly reducing litter and trash. In some cases, recycling[1] In this report, the terms municipal solid waste, waste, and solid waste are used interchangeably.[2] In the waste management hierarchy, waste prevention (which refers to any action to avoid waste gen-eration) is the preferred option to manage MSW. However, measuring waste prevention is challengingas it represents waste that was never created. Currently, there is no available data on waste prevention.fraserinstitute.org
2 Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? Yunis and Aliakbariprograms may also generate processed waste products which can be resold. Note, however, that households tend to separate the most valuable among their discarded goodseither for selling themselves or donating to thrift shops. The residuals which are placedin the trash or recycling stream tend therefore to be the least valuable materials.It is important to also note that diverting systems also have environmental footprints. There are some cases where manufacturing products from recycled materialsrequires more energy and resources than does manufacturing the same products fromprimary raw materials (Brown et al., 2004). However, the environmental costs associatedwith diversion are typically smaller than disposal systems (EPA, 2021; Environment andClimate Change Canada, 2021). In other words, waste diversion is a more environmentally friendly method of waste management in comparison to waste disposal.Nonetheless, it should be pointed out that the evidence is mixed regarding whetherwaste recycling is a cost-effective strategy to manage solid waste, especially when weaccount for both financial variables and environmental factors. While some studies havefound recycling resulting in overall costs savings for waste management systems (Tonjesand Mallikarjun, 2013; Lavee, 2010), others have found that recycling costs tend to exceedthe benefits (Tanskanen et al., 1998; Modak and Everett, 1996).Who Is Involved?In Canada, MSW management is a shared responsibility between federal, provincial,and municipal governments. However, the bulk of the operation lies on municipal governments as they manage the collection, disposal, and recycling of both residential andnon-residential solid waste. Municipalities manage MSW either directly by using theirown government staff or through private contracting firms.On the other hand, provincial and territorial authorities regulate MSW management by establishing policies, strategies, targets, and programs and approving and monitoring waste management facilities and operations.The federal government, besides regulating the international and interprovincial movements of hazardous waste and recyclable materials, sets standards and identifies the best practices for MSW management by publishing reports and recommendations. Additionally, itcollects data, supports research and development, and provides fiscal incentives for recycling.This complementary nature of MSW management is a key component of theAspirational Canada-wide Waste Reduction Goal. On November 2018, the CanadianCouncil of Ministers of the Environment, composed of environment ministers fromthe federal, provincial, and territorial governments, set a non-binding aspirationalgoal of reducing per-capita solid waste disposal to 490 kg by 2030 and 350 kg by 2050(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018b).Objective and Main FindingsThe purpose of this study is to track the state and progress of municipal solid waste generation and management in Canada over the last two decades. Section 2 breaks downCanada-wide data on solid waste generation, disposal, and diversion between 2002 andfraserinstitute.org
Yunis and Aliakbari Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? 32018. Section 3 analyzes and compares provincial data on MSW generation, disposal,and diversion between 2002 and 2018 while also describing some of the programs andobjectives provinces have set for themselves.Overall, the evidence shows that when we account for population and economicactivity, Canada has generated and disposed of less waste over the past two decades. Inparticular, Canadians are generating less waste over time—2 percent less on a per-capitabasis, and 23 percent less per unit of GDP in 2018 compared to 2002. In addition, percapita waste disposal also declined by 10 percent during this period while disposal intensity, which measures MSW disposed of per unit of GDP, declined by 29 percent.The fact that Canada’s waste generation and disposal grew significantly more slowlythan its GDP from 2002 to 2018 suggests that Canada has partially decoupled waste generation and disposal from economic growth.Moreover, the data shows a shift in the sources of MSW generation. While nonresidential sources continue to account for most of the solid waste generated in Canada(56 percent of total waste generated), its share has been declining since 2002 when itstood at 64 percent. Consequently, MSW generated by residential sources has increasedfrom 11.2 million tonnes in 2002 to 15 million tonnes in 2016, making up 44 percent oftotal solid waste generated in Canada.In addition, waste diversion has steadily increased in Canada. In 2018, about 28percent of waste was diverted in Canada—chiefly comprised of paper fibres and organics—compared to almost 22 percent in 2002. In 2018, the remaining 72 percent of waste,which is largely comprised of food and plastics, was disposed of mostly in landfills. Overall,Canada’s waste management still relies heavily on landfills despite significant increasesin diversion rates.Furthermore, while most Canadian provinces have reduced waste generation anddisposal over time (relative to economic activity and population), progress varies. NewBrunswick saw the greatest increase in per-person waste generation and disposal (20percent and 19 percent increases, respectively), going from 726 kg of solid waste generated per person and 552 kg of solid waste disposed per person in 2002 to 872 kg of wastegenerated and 659 kg of waste disposed of in 2018. On the other hand, British Columbiasaw one of the the highest declines in these metrics—a 7 percent decrease in generationand a 17 percent decrease in disposal. Following British Columbia, Quebec and Ontarioalso made notable progress by reducing per-person waste generation by 3 percent and 5percent, respectively, and by reducing their per person waste disposal figures by 16 percent and 12 percent, respectively.With respect to waste diversion, almost all provinces have increased their diversion rates since 2002, with the exceptions of Manitoba and Alberta. Nova Scotia, whichincreased its diversion rate by 12 percent between 2002 and 2018, has the highest diversion rate in the country with almost half of its total amount of waste generated divertedfrom landfills. British Columbia is a close second with a diversion rate of almost 40 percent while Newfoundland and Labrador has the lowest diversion rate, at 10 percent.fraserinstitute.org
4 Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? Yunis and Aliakbari2. Waste Generation, Disposal, andDiversion in CanadaIn most countries, the amount of waste generated tends to increase generally in linewith population and economic growth. However, not all waste is treated equally. It isimportant to recognize the difference in treatment between waste disposed and wastediverted. The former is considered garbage and is sent to landfills or to an incinerationplant, while the latter is treated as a commodity and sent to recycling and compostingfacilities for processing and re-use.Figure 1 shows the evolution of total non-hazardous waste disposal and diversionin Canada over the period of 2002 to 2018 using published Statistics Canada information.Waste generation is the sum of total solid waste disposed and the total amount of solidwaste diverted. Every two years, Statistics Canada carries out its Waste ManagementIndustry Survey, collecting data from both the business and the government sectors andgathering information on solid waste collection, disposal, recycling, and other variablesregarding MSW management. The latest available data for solid waste management inCanada is from 2018.Overall, Canadians generated 35.5 million tonnes of solid waste, which is the sumof waste disposal and waste diversion, in 2018—16 percent more than in 2002 when 30.7million tonnes were produced. By comparison, Canada’s population and real GDP rose byFigure 1: Total amount of waste generated, disposed, and diverted in Canada,2002 to 201840Waste disposedWaste diverted35Million 10201220142016201820151050Sources: Statistics Canada, 2021a, 2021d.fraserinstitute.org
Yunis and Aliakbari Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? 518 percent and almost 50 percent, respectively, over the same period (Statistics Canada,2021a; Statistics Canada, 2021b). Of the total amount of solid waste generated in 2018, 72percent was disposed of (landfills, incineration, or export) while 28 percent was diverted.In 2016 (the most recent data available), most of Canada’s disposed solid waste went tolandfill sites in Canada (82 percent), 15 percent was exported to the United States, while3 percent was incinerated (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020).Nationally, the amount of waste disposal reached 25.7 million tonnes in 2018—3percent higher than 2016 levels and 7 percent above 2002 levels when waste disposalstood at 24.4 and 24.1 million tonnes, respectively.Similarly, the total amount of waste diverted (reused, recycled, or composted)increased considerably over the same period. In 2002, Canadians diverted 6.6 milliontonnes of solid waste. By 2018, the total amount of MSW diverted increased by 48 percent to reach 9.8 million tonnes.Figure 2 shows waste generation by source in Canada from 2002 to 2016 (thelatest year for which we have detailed available data). As shown, non-residential sourcescontinue to account for most of the MSW generated in Canada. However, its share hasdeclined since 2002. More specifically, solid waste produced by the industrial, commercial, and institutional sector went down from 19.5 million tonnes in 2002 (63 percent oftotal waste generated that year) to 19.2 million tonnes in 2016 (56 percent). [3] In contrast, household waste went from 11.2 million tonnes in 2002 to 15 million tonnes in 2016,a 34 percent increase. Residential sources made up 44 percent of all the waste producedin Canada in 2016.Figure 2: Sources of waste generation, Canada, 2002 to 2016Residential sourcesNon-residential sources3530Million ce: Statistics Canada, 2021a.[3] Shares of residential and non-residential sources for all sources were not available for 2018.fraserinstitute.org
6 Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? Yunis and AliakbariSimilar to waste generation, most of the waste disposed of comes from the nonresidential sector. More specifically, in 2018, 58 percent came from non-residentialsources and the residential sector accounted for 42 percent. However, these proportions have changed over time. The share of non-residential solid waste decreased from 65percent in 2002 to 58 percent in 2018 while the share of residential solid waste increasedfrom 35 percent in 2002 to 42 percent in 2018.Figures 3 and 4 show the composition of residential and non-residential waste disposal in Canada in 2016, the year of latest available data (Environment and Climate ChangeCanada, 2020). Food and plastics, the two single largest categories, made up 41 percent ofFigure 3: Composition of residential MSW, Canada, 2016Textiles 2%Glass 2%Rubber andleather 1%Wood 2%Metals 3%Food 28%Building material 5%Other organics 6%Yard and garden 7%Other 9%Plastics 13%Paper 10%Diapers and pet waste 12%Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020.Figure 4: Composition of non-residential MSW, Canada, 2016Glass 2%Rubber andleather 2%Textiles 1%Yard and garden 3%Diapers and pet waste 3%Food 25%Metals 4%Buildingmaterials 5%Wood 8%Otherorganics 9%Plastics 16%Other 9%Paper 14%Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020.fraserinstitute.org
Yunis and Aliakbari Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? 7the total amount of waste disposed of in 2016 for both the residential and non-residentialsectors. Approximately 5.8 million tonnes of food (161 kg per capita) and 3.3 million tonnesof plastic (93 kg per capita) were disposed of in 2016. Currently, Canada has a target of zeroplastic waste disposal by 2030.Evidently, diapers and pet waste accounted for 12 percent of all residentialsolid waste disposed in 2016—the third largest category for residential sources. Paperaccounted for 10 percent and 14 percent of the total amount of waste from the residentialand non-residential sectors, respectively.It is worth noting that approximately 70 percent of residential waste and 74 percent of non-residential waste disposed in 2016 was considered degradable, i.e., methaneemitting materials.Figure 5 depicts Canada’s diversion rate, i.e., the amount of MSW diverted as proportion of waste generated, over the same period. As shown, the diversion rate has consistentlyincreased in Canada over time. Specifically, it rose from 22 percent in 2002 to 28 percent in2018, meaning that Canada currently diverts more than one quarter of the amount of waste generated. In terms of sources for waste diversion, in 2016, the residential sector was responsiblefor 52 percent of diverted waste while non-residential sector was responsible for 48 percent.[4] It is worth noting that the increase in Canada’s diversion rate is largely driven by a sizeableuptick in recycling from residential sources. Between 2002 and 2016, recycling from residential sources increased by 71 percent while non-residential recycling rose by almost 17 percent.Figure 5: Diversion rate, Canada, 2002 to 2018Waste diverted as a share of waste 010201227%27%28%20142016201820%15%10%5%0%Sources: Statistics Canada, 2021a, 2021d; calculations by authors.[4] Shares of residential and non-residential sources for materials diverted are not available for 2018as electronic and tire source data are incomplete.fraserinstitute.org
8 Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? Yunis and AliakbariFigure 6 shows solid waste diversion by type of material in Canada in 2018. Thevast majority of materials that were diverted in 2018 came from paper fibres and organics.Paper fibres, which include newsprint, cardboard, boxboard, and mixed paper, make upalmost 36 percent of diverted material in Canada while the share of organics is 29 percent.This proportion has remained relatively stable since 2004.The diversion of plastics, a debated issue in environmental policy, increased markedly during this time period. Canadians went from diverting 144,181 tonnes of plastics in2002 to roughly 355,000 tonnes in 2018—a 146 percent increase.Figure 6: Share of total waste diverted, by material, Canada, 2018Other materials 1%Organics 29%All paper fibres 36%Construction, renovationand demolition 7%Glass 4%Tires 5%Ferrous metals 6%Plastics 4%Electronics1%Whitegoods 3%Mixedmetals 1%Source: Statistics Canada, 2021d.Figure 7 shows per-capita waste disposal and diversion in Canada between 2002and 2018. Despite the fact that the total amount of MSW increased, per-capita solid wastedisposal (both residential and non-residential) declined by 10 percent from 768 to 694kg. As it stands, Canada has to reduce per-capita solid waste disposal by 30 percent if itwishes to achieve its goal of getting to 490 kg by 2030.Similarly, diversion of waste per capita increased over the same period from 212kg in 2002 to 265 kg in 2018, an increase of about 25 percent.Adding the two streams together indicates that per-person generation of MSWdecreased from 980 kg per person in 2002 to 959 kg in 2018—a 2 percent reduction.Several factors can influence waste generation and disposal methods. As a country’s wealth increases, solid waste generation is generally thought to increase. The mainreason for this is rising incomes, which leads to rising material consumption. In otherwords, as people become more prosperous, they purchase and discard more newspapers,cars, clothes, etc., leading to more solid waste generation and disposal.fraserinstitute.org
Yunis and Aliakbari Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? 9Figure 7: Per-capita solid waste disposal and diversion, Canada, 2002 to 20181,200Per-capita waste disposedPer-capita waste 0122014201620186004002000Sources: Statistics Canada, 2021a, 2021d, 2021e; calculations by authors.Relative to economic activity, Canadians are also generating and disposing of lesswaste over time. Figure 8 shows Canada’s generation and disposal intensity, which measures the amount of waste generated and disposed of per unit of gross domestic product(GDP), between 2002 and 2018. Waste generation intensity fell considerably from 29tonnes per 1 million in GDP in 2002 to 22 tonnes per 1 million in GDP in 2018—a 23percent reduction. In addition, waste disposal intensity plummeted 29 percent during thisperiod, going from 22 tonnes for every 1 million in output in 2002 to 16 tonnes in 2018.It is important to note that Canada’s real GDP grew by almost 50 percent between2002 and 2018 while its total waste generation and disposal increased by 16 percent and 7percent, respectively, over the same period. The fact that Canada’s waste generation anddisposal grew significantly more slowly than its GDP suggests that Canada has, at leastpartially, decoupled waste generation and disposal from economic growth.Overall, the data (and the trend) on solid waste generation and management inCanada tell three interrelated stories. First, despite absolute amounts increasing between2002 and 2018, Canadians are generating and disposing of less waste on a per-capitabasis. Second, Canadians are also reusing, recycling, and composting more solid wastethan they used to in 2002, in both absolute and per-capita terms. And last, but not least,Canada has been partially decoupling its economic growth from waste generation anddisposal.fraserinstitute.org
10 Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? Yunis and AliakbariFigure 8: Solid waste generation and disposal intensity,Canada, 2002 to 2018Tonnes per 1 million in 6105Solid waste generation intensitySolid waste disposal intensitry0200220042006200820102012Sources: Statistics Canada, 2021a, 2021f; calculations by authors.fraserinstitute.org201420162018
Yunis and Aliakbari Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? 113. Waste Generation, Disposal, andDiversion in Canadian ProvincesIn absolute numbers, all provinces in Canada generated more total waste in 2018 than in2002. [5] This result is not surprising given that Canadian provinces have experiencedhigher economic growth and population levels over time. However, some provinces aregenerating less on a per-capita basis.As shown in figure 9, five out of the nine provinces featured in this study reducedper-capita MSW generation during this period. Manitobans, for example, went from generating 962 kg of solid waste in 2002 to 891 kg in 2018—the largest per person reductionfor any province (9 percent). The second largest reduction came from British Columbia,which reduced per-person MSW by 7 percent during this period by producing 891 kgin 2018. Similarly, Ontarians went from generating 985 kg per person in 2002 to 938 kgin 2018, a 5 percent reduction. In addition, Quebec continues to be one of the highestwaste-generating provinces in Canada despite reducing per-capita waste generation by3 percent during this period.Figure 9: Per-capita waste generation, by province, 2002 and 20181,2001,145 1,1751,020 ms8728767907407266216004002000AlbertaQuebecOntario SaskatchewanBritishColumbiaManitobaNew NewfoundlandBrunswick & LabradorNovaScotiaSources: Statistics Canada, 2021a, 2021e; calculations by authors.[5] Data for Prince Edward Island was not available.fraserinstitute.org
12 Generation and Management of Municipal Solid Waste: How’s Canada Doing? Yunis and AliakbariOverall, Alberta, Quebec, and Ontario are the provinces that generated the mostMSW on a per-capita basis in 2018, possibly reflecting higher levels of economic activitycompared to other provinces.On the other hand, the three Atlantic provinces—Newfoundland and Labrador,Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick—generated the least amount of MSW in Canada, perhaps due to the small sizes of their economies. However, the three provinces increased percapita waste generation during this time. Notable increases came from New Brunswick,which went from producing 726 kg of MSW per person in 2002 to 872 kg in 2018, andNova Scotia, which increased its per-person MSW generation figures by 19 percent.Figure 10 shows that, when we account for economic activity, all provinces reducedtheir solid waste generation intensity—which measures the tonnes of MSW generatedfor every 1 million dollars of GDP produced. British Columbia went from producing28 tonnes for every 1 million dollar of output in 2002 to only 20 tonnes—a 28 percentreduction—despite having one of the largest economies in Canada. Other significantreductions came from Manitoba (27 percent),
Climate Change Canada, 2021). In other words, waste diversion is a more environment-ally friendly method of waste management in comparison to waste disposal. Nonetheless, it should be pointed out that the evidence is mixed regarding whether waste recycling is a cost-effective strategy to manage solid waste, especially when we
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