System Analysis Of Meuse & Schelde Delta's
SYSTEM ANALYSIS OF MEUSE & SCHELDE DELTA’S BY FANTASTIC PLASTIC CIE4702 - Intergrated Project: Leapfrog Environmental Degradation AUTHORS Liselotte van Cranenburgh Feiyang Liu Shan Jiang Eman Rageh Lucas Veel Renske Free 5103576 5045452 5139228 4333772 4378024 09-12-2019
Abstract In this research, a system analysis of the Meuse and Schelde deltas was carried out to pinpoint appropriate locations for monitoring plastics. In order to do so, a literature study was conducted on the factors that influence the distribution of plastics in a river delta. The four main natural parameters identified affecting the flow and deposition of plastics are flow velocity, wind direction and speed, salinity and tidal range. For each parameter a conceptual model and hypothesis was designed to predict the behaviour of plastics within the water. In addition to the natural parameters, the anthropogenic influences were also considered in the two deltas. A total of eight locations within the research area were chosen for monitoring plastics based on the influences of all abovementioned parameters and the availability of data. For each location, suggestions were given which hypotheses could best be tested there. These location specific suggestions are the outcome of this project and the input provided to Rijkswaterstaat for their research and monitoring programme. This research is part of a wider national programme using citizen science methodology. The main constraint of this research was the limited availability of data in terms of locations and time. The most important conclusion, therefore, is that these eight locations are a good starting point for plastic debris monitoring, whereas additional data from other locations and more extended periods of data collection would significantly improve the reliability of the research.
Table of Contents Abstract . 2 List of figures . 5 List of tables . 5 1. Introduction . 6 1.1. Background . 6 1.2. Motivation. 6 1.3. Goal of the research. 6 1.4. Research questions . 6 1.5. Scope of the research . 7 1.6. Reading guide. 7 2. Methodology . 8 2.1. Step 1: Literature Research . 8 2.2. Step 2: Data collection . 8 2.3. Step 3: Conceptual models . 8 2.4. Step 4: Choosing possible monitoring locations . 8 2.5. Step 5: Applying conceptual models and hypotheses on test locations . 8 3. Results . 9 3.1. Literature Research and case studies . 9 3.1.1. Plastics. 9 3.1.2. Case studies . 10 3.1.3. The Oosterschelde . 10 3.1.4. The Westerschelde . 11 3.1.5. The Haringvliet . 12 3.1.6. The Nieuwe Waterweg . 12 3.2. Data Collection . 12 3.3. Conceptual models . 13 3.3.1. Flow and velocity . 13 3.3.2. Tidal influence . 14 3.3.3. Wind influence . 14 3.3.4. Anthropogenic activity . 15 3.3.5. Salinity gradient . 15 3.4. Choosing possible monitoring locations . 16 3.5. Applying conceptual models and hypotheses on test locations. 17 3.5.1. Location 1 Hoek van Holland . 18 3.5.2. Location 6: Westenschouwen . 19
3.5.3 Location 7: Bath . 20 3.5.9. Summary . 21 4. Discussion. 22 5. Conclusion and recommendations . 23 5.1. Conclusion . 23 5.2. Recommendations . 23 References . 24 Appendices. 26 A. Data per parameter per location . 26 B. Locations . 32 B.1. Location 2: Rozenburg . 32 B.2. Location 3: Vlaardingen . 33 B.3. Location 4: Haringvlietweg, near Hellevoetsluis. 34 B.4. Location 5: Willemstad . 35 B.5. Location 8: Terneuzen. 36 C. Team work . 37 C.1 Field trip pictures . 37 C.2 Story wall . 38 C.3 Team Reflection . 39
List of figures Figure 1 Scope of the area, where in red is the Schelde delta and the purple circles indicate the Meuse delta . 7 Figure 2 Schematic overview of the three depths in the vertical water column that were used . 8 Figure 3 Comparison of the size of sands particles to the plastics size to study the movement of the plastics . 9 Figure 4 Division of parameters for the conceptual model . 10 Figure 5 Hanging nets in the water column (Capelle, 2017) . 11 Figure 6 Effect of shipping industry on the velocity profile of the water column (Bhowmik, 1981). 11 Figure 7 Recreational boating areas . 11 Figure 8 Harbour of Rotterdam (Port of Rotterdam, sd) . 12 Figure 9 Conceptual model of velocity parameter . 13 Figure 10 Conceptual model of Tidal influences parameter. 14 Figure 11 Conceptual model of the wind parameter. 14 Figure 12 Conceptual model of salinity parameter . 15 Figure 13 The final eight locations best suited for citizen science measurements . 16 Figure 14 Area of interest for location 1, upper channel is called the Nieuwe Waterweg and the lower channel Challand channel . 18 Figure 15 Area of interest for location 6 . 19 Figure 16 Area of interest for location 7 . 20 Figure 17 Area of interest for location 2 . 32 Figure 18 Area of interest for location 3 . 33 Figure 19 Area of interest for location 4 . 34 Figure 20 Three possible locations for citizen science near Willemstad . 35 Figure 21 Area of interest for location 8 . 36 List of tables Table 1 Values of different parameters for the eight different locations, showing the parameters of influence in green. . 17 Table 2 Values for salinity in the water column for the eight different locations . 17 Table 3 Hypotheses which can be assessed at the eight different locations . 21 Table 4 Measurement methods which can be made in eight different locations . 21
1. Introduction 1.1. Background “Of all the waste we generate, plastic bags are perhaps the greatest symbol of our throwaway society. They are used, then forgotten, and they leave a terrible legacy” (Goldsmith, 2019). To show the immenseness of the plastic use within our society, here are a few facts. Worldwide an amount of 500 billion plastic bags are used every year. This means that more than one million plastic bags are used every minute, and a plastic bag has an average “working life” of 15 minutes (Plastic Oceans , 2019). These numbers only represent the vast amount of plastic bags that are used. The total annual output of all plastics worldwide comes down to around 311 million tonnes. Between 4.6 and 12.7 million tonnes of these plastics enter the ocean every year (Jenna Jambeck, 2015). This is in the form of plastic bags, but also make up, cleaning products, cigarette buts and even tooth paste. The increasing number of plastic in the Oceans is often referred to as the “plastic soup”, and could have devastating effects for nature and humankind itself. This is the reason why it is important that countries start monitoring rivers and deltas that carry these plastics into the oceans. 1.2. Motivation Rijkswaterstaat wants to increase their understanding of the sources, transport and dispersion of plastic pollution, which travels via the Schelde and Meuse deltas to the North Sea. They would like to do this with the help of a large citizen science project. There are several non-governmental organisations that have put citizen science into use to get an idea of the presence and dispersion of plastics in the rivers, and Rijkswaterstaat wishes to evaluate how they may contribute to this. Citizen science is an ideal method for collecting data for a large scale project like this project, as it saves costs and could ensure that citizens have a better understanding of the scale of the problem. This could have a positive effect on the risk perception of plastic pollution (Kristian Syberg, 2018). 1.3. Goal of the research The goal of this research is to provide a detailed system analysis of the distribution of plastic debris in the two Dutch deltas: The Meuse, including Nieuwe Maas, Oude Maas and Haringvliet Oosterschelde, including Westerschelde and Oosterschelde. These deltas are very complex systems, but by conducting a system analysis it could be possible to find out how certain processes work which influence the locations of plastic accumulation. The goal of the system analysis is to investigate at what locations citizen science research could be done to get information about the distribution of plastics. In addition to this research, two other groups from Applied Science Universities in the Netherlands are working on the project at a larger scope as well. 1.4. Research questions The following research question was established: What influences the distribution of plastics in the river delta systems of the Meuse and Schelde, and how can that be used to pinpoint suitable locations for citizen science monitoring? For this research question the following sub questions were established: What type of delta are the Meuse and Schelde? What natural and human parameters influence the distribution of plastic debris for that type of delta? And what are their effects? How do different types of plastic distribute in the vertical water column? What locations can be determined to perform citizen science monitoring of plastic accumulation?
1.5. Scope of the research The case study of the Schelde delta can be divided into the Oosterschelde and the Westerschelde (Heip C. , 1989) and the Meuse Delta is split into the Haringvliet and the Nieuwe Waterweg. The scope of the research is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 Scope of the area, where in red is the Schelde delta and the purple circles indicate the Meuse delta 1.6. Reading guide This report starts off with the methodology of the conducted research. This chapter explains the approach that was taken to obtain results in five different steps. The next chapter contains the results of the research. It is divided into five subchapters, which correspond to the five different steps in the methodology. The first subchapter includes the literature research of the case studies. The second subchapter holds the data collection of the research. The third one describes the different conceptual models which were designed for this research and includes hypothesis based on these models. The fourth chapter is on the choice of possible monitoring locations and the fifth and final subchapter applies the different conceptual models and hypotheses on the test locations. A discussion on assumptions made in the system analysis and problems encountered can be read after the results chapter. Lastly, conclusions and recommendations are stated.
2. Methodology This chapter describes the methodology used for the system analysis of the Meuse and Schelde deltas in the Netherlands. The methodology for the system analysis is divided into five steps that each describe the way that the data was collected and assessed. 2.1. Step 1: Literature Research First, an extensive literature research was conducted on deltas and plastics in general. From this research, different parameters of influence were determined, both anthropogenic and natural. Further literature research was conducted on the different types of plastic and their behaviour in water. Finally, reference projects were compared to determine a suitable approach for a system analysis in the deltas of the Meuse and Schelde. 2.2. Step 2: Data collection The main source of data was the Rijkswaterstaat website: a collection of one week data of different areas on the deltas was used. Only one week data was used because of the lack of data availability. It was assumed that the average of one week would be a valid representative for a period in the autumn season with relatively high precipitation. The data for all parameters at different locations was statically conducted to carry out the system analysis: Averages for the wind speed and direction were taken. Maximum flow velocity and discharge were used. Average of the difference between the maximum and minimum values of tide height were used. Average salinity values at three different depths in the vertical water column were taken. Figure 2 shows the three depths that were taken into account. 2.3. Step 3: Conceptual models Figure 2 Schematic overview of the three depths in the vertical water column that were used Step 3 was to identify the effect of each parameter individually by designing conceptual models according to knowledge acquired from literature. For each parameter a specific model was designed, illustrating the influence of the parameters on the transportation of plastic in the vertical and horizontal water column. An hypothesis according to the conceptual model was established, explaining the behaviour of plastics to the influencing parameters. 2.4. Step 4: Choosing possible monitoring locations Conceptual models were applied to the data available of the different locations per parameter. All the allocated locations per parameter were merged and compared to conclude the locations of the high potential areas of plastic accumulation. The locations were also chosen based on their significance in terms of (industrial or recreational) activity, availability of data and accessibility for testing. In the two deltas, eight locations were determined for more in depth analysis. 2.5. Step 5: Applying conceptual models and hypotheses on test locations Each location was assessed more thoroughly using the conceptual models. It depends on the location which of the specific hypotheses can be best investigated . At each location, it was also stated at which depth test samples should be taken for citizen science monitoring.
3. Results In this chapter, the results are included. The chapter follows a similar structure as the methodology and the steps of the methodology correspond to the subchapters in this results chapter. 3.1. Literature Research and case studies A literature research was performed on plastics and on the case studies of the two deltas. 3.1.1. Plastics Since the first human settlements estuaries contain most of the World’s population, because of their advantageous location. Consequently, due to human activity in these regions, these estuaries have been heavily impacted (Ivar do Sul, 2013). With plastics becoming one of the most commonly used materials in the world, humans have increased the impact we have on our environment exponentially. After entering the sewer, these plastics weather down into something so small we call “microplastics”. This is the result of thermal, chemical or physical degradation. The longer the journey of the plastic, the more fragmented they become (Ivar do Sul, 2013). The weathered down plastics will eventually end up in the rivers and in the estuaries, causing great harm to the flora and fauna in these environments. The distribution of microplastics in estuaries can be affected by several factors. The most important is density. Density determines what place the plastics have in the water column (EPA, 2006). Plastics pollution in water systems found in macro and micro size, according to (Sadri & Thompson, 2014) research micro plastics ( 5mm) present more than macro plastics ( 5mm). The most abundant types of plastics are polyethylene, polystyrene and polypropylene and they make up packaging that is used (Thompson, Browne, & S, Spatial Patterns of Plastic Debris along Estuarine Shorelines, 2010). Substances Polyethylene Polypropylene Polystyrene Water Seawater Polyester Nylon PVC Density g/cm3 0.9 to 0.99 0.85 to 0.95 1 1 1.03 1.37 1.15 1.1-1.45 Figure 3 Comparison of the size of sands particles to the plastics size to study the movement of the plastics The size and density of plastics debris are the factors that determine their vertical position within the column of water (Thompson, Browne, & S, Spatial Patterns of Plastic Debris along Estuarine Shorelines, 2010), however; plastics mostly are accumulated in the shoreline of estuaries (Sadri & Thompson, 2014). Considering the density as the influencing factor, macro plastics that are less dense will accumulate on the surface and shorelines comparing to the low dense plastics. While high density micro plastics will sediment in the bed sea. Another big influencer for the distribution, and especially important for this research, is the mixing of fresh and saltwater. This fresh and salt water interface is present in every estuary and is a major contributor to the motion of the water present (Vermeiren & Ikejima, 2016). The intrusion of salt water prevents freshwater streams to move over the bottom, which transports materials as bedload. This could cause accumulation of microplastics on the bottom of the estuary (D.S.Mclusky, S.C.Hull, & M.Elliott, 1993). Thirdly, wind combined with the propagation of waves influences the quantity and distribution of microplastics. Windward oceanic beaches often have greater quantities of microplastics on them (Eriksson, 2013). Lastly, sandy beaches are areas of plastic marine debris. That’s why, most of the time, beaches are chosen to measure plastic pollution in an estuary (Ivar do
Sul, 2013). Lower angle banks caused by higher erosion potential have greater capability to host deposits of more plastics (Vermeiren & Ikejima, 2016). This means that for the distribution of microplastics, the angle of the banks should also be taken into account. To carry out a system analysis of different density plastic accumulation in the Meuse and Scheldt delta, explicit conceptual models were designed based on the literature research above. The influential factors can be divided in to natural and anthropogenic parameters, which can be seen in Figure 4. Four natural factors relevant to plastic distribution in delta system were determined, including wind speed and direction, flow velocity/discharge, tide and salinity. The anthropogenic factor depend on human’s activities or human impact on the water surface, such as infrastructure. These anthropogenic factors are mentioned in the subchapter “Case studies”. Figure 4 Division of parameters for the conceptual model 3.1.2. Case studies The case studies as shown in Figure 1 in the chapter “Introduction”, was divided into two deltas. The Meuse delta was divided again into the Haringvliet and Nieuwe Waterweg and the Schelde delta consists of the Oosterschelde and the Westerschelde. Below, these four waterways are evaluated. 3.1.3. The Oosterschelde The Oosterschelde water is salty from the sea water (Heip C. , 1989) without a distinct salinity gradient and can be classified as a marine tidal basin or a high quality marine system (Gerringa, H.Hummel, & T.C.W.Moerdijk-Poortvliet, 1989) (Nienhuis, Smaal, & Knoester, 1994) after the construction of the storm surge barrier in the delta. The storm surge barrier is one of the anthropogenic factors that may influence the delta (Nienhuis, Smaal, & Knoester, 1994) in terms of decrease in tides in amplitude, occurrence and speed (Nienhuis, Smaal, & Knoester, 1994). Another consequence of the storm surge barrier is a reduced water exchange, reduced saltwater inflow and a decrease om current velocities (Capelle, 2017). Another factor could be the production of mussels in the Oosterschelde (Heip C. , 1989). Mussels are caught using two different methods: hanging culture or bottom culture (Mosselen Zo Uit Zeeland, sd). The hanging culture is used in the Oosterschelde. The nets in the water may affect the current flow at the place of the hanging nets. It could also be possible that plastics accumulate in the hanging nets (Het Nederlands Mosselbureau, sd), (Brinsley, 2002).
Figure 5 Hanging nets in the water column (Capelle, 2017) 3.1.4. The Westerschelde The Westerschelde is open to the ocean and has a clear fresh-salt water interface halfway in the delta, near Terneuzen (Heip C. , 1989). It can be classified as a well-mixed delta with a vertical salinity gradient (Gerringa, H.Hummel, & T.C.W.Moerdijk-Poortvliet, 1989). The Westerschelde is the most frequently used water way in the Netherlands (Rijkswaterstaat, sd) as ships transport goods from Vlissingen to Antwerp and back out to the ocean. The boat traffic could create turbulence on the surface of the water or the shallow depths of the water column and increase the wave amplitude. Wave generation from boating could result in a short velocity decrease, after which the velocity returns to its original value (Wikström, 2019) (Bhowmik, 1981). Figure 6 Effect of shipping industry on the velocity profile of the water column (Bhowmik, 1981) Recreational boating occurs in the Westerschelde as well, especially between Terneuzen - Vlissingen and Terneuzen – Hansweert marked with red circles in Figure 7 (Rijkswaterstaat, sd). Tourists could throw plastics into the water. This increases macroplastics in the Westerschelde (Bhowmik, 1981). Figure 7 Recreational boating areas
3.1.5. The Haringvliet The Haringvliet estuary is an unfilled system as there is no or limited water flow from the sea into the estuary due to the presence of sluices (Martinius & Berg, 2011). The sluices of the Haringvliet determine the water discharge of the delta (Rijkswaterstaat, sd). The flow is low in this system as high velocities do not coincide with closed sluices (M.J. Baptist, 2207). Since 2018, the sluices are open three quarters of the year to make it possible for fish to swim back further upstream. This opening of the sluices is small, such that the tides have no or small influence on the water level (De Ingenieur, 2018). The establishment of the sluices causes a decrease in discharge and velocity and increases sedimentation. During high water levels, the sluices open and this scenario results in changes in the tidal flow and causes salt water to enter the delta (P. Paalvast, 1998). 3.1.6. The Nieuwe Waterweg The Nieuwe Waterweg and Brielse Maas are filled estuaries (Martinius & Berg, 2011) means that water from the sea can flow into the Nieuwe Waterweg. This is possible because the storm surge barrier called the Maeslantkering is nearly always open. In a filled system, tidal influences are limited during high discharge, but do affect the flow during low discharges (Martinius & Berg, 2011). The harbour of Rotterdam is located in the middle of the delta of the Nieuwe Waterweg. Traffic and industry in the harbour increases the production of plastic waste in the Nieuwe Waterweg. Plastic accumulation in the harbour of Rotterdam stimulated the establish
The case study of the Schelde delta can be divided into the Oosterschelde and the Westerschelde (Heip C. , 1989) and the Meuse Delta is split into the Haringvliet and the Nieuwe Waterweg. The scope of the research is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 Scope of the area, where in red is the Schelde delta and the purple circles indicate the Meuse delta 1.6.
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