The Dark Side Of Self- And Social Perception: Black .
Copyrighl 1988 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.0022-3514/88/ 00.75Journal of Pereonality and Social Psychology1988, Vol. 54, No. 1,74-85The Dark Side of Self- and Social Perception: Black Uniformsand Aggression in Professional SportsMark G. Frank and Thomas GilovichCornell UniversityBlack is viewed as the color of evil and death in virtually all cultures. With this association in mind,we were interested in whether a cue as subtle as the color of a person's clothing might have a significant impact on his or her behavior. To test this possibility, we examined whether professional footballand ice hockey teams that wear black uniforms are more aggressive than those that wear nonblackuniforms. An analysis of the penalty records of the National Football League and the NationalHockey League indicate that teams with black uniforms in both sports ranked near the top of theirleagues in penalties throughout the period of study. On those occasions when a team switched fromnonblack to black uniforms, the switch was accompanied by an immediate increase in penalties.The results of two laboratory experiments indicate that this finding can be attributed to both socialperception and self-perception processes—that is, to the biased judgments of referees and to theincreased aggressiveness of the players themselves. Our discussion focuses on the theoretical implications of these data for an understanding of the variable, or "situated," nature of the self.A convenient feature of the traditional American Westernover, this association between black and evil is not strictly anAmerican or Western phenomenon, because college students infilm was the ease with which the viewer could distinguish thegood guys from the bad guys: The bad guys wore the black hats.Of course, film directors did not invent this connection betweenblack and evil, but built upon an existing association that extends deep into our culture and language. When a terrible thingGermany, Denmark, Hong Kong, and India (Williams, Moreland, & Underwood, 1970) and Ndembu tribesmen in Centralhappens on a given day, we refer to it as a "black day," as whenblack is seen, in virtually all cultures, as the color of evil anddeath.Africa (Turner, 1967) all report that the color black connotesevil and death. Thus, Adams and Osgood (1973) concluded thatthe Depression was ushered in by the infamous "Black Thursday." We can hurt ourselves by "blackening" our reputation orThe intriguing question is whether these associations influ-be hurt by others by being "blacklisted," "blackballed," orence people's behavior in important ways. For example, does"blackmailed" (Williams, 1964). When the Chicago White Soxwearing black clothing lead both the wearer and others to per-deliberately lost the 1919 World Series as part of a bettingscheme, they became known as the Chicago Black Sox, and tothis day this "dark" chapter in American sports history isknown as the Black Sox Scandal. In a similar vein, Muhammeddoes it lead the wearer to actually act more aggressively? ?Ali has observed that we refer to white cake as "angel food cake"and dark cake as "devil's food cake."affect the amount of aggression he or she expresses. In oneThese anecdotes concerning people's negative associations tothe color black are reinforced by the research literature on colordeliver shocks to another subject whenever she made a mistake.ceive him or her as more evil and aggressive? More important,This possibility is suggested by studies on anonymity and"deindividuation" which show that a person's clothing canstudy, female subjects in a "learning" experiment were asked toUnder the pretense of minimizing individual identities, one halfmeanings. In one representative experiment, groups of collegeof the subjects wore nurses uniforms (a prosocial cue), and thestudents and seventh graders who were asked to make semanticdifferential ratings of colors were found to associate black withother half wore outfits resembling Ku Klux Klan uniforms (anantisocial cue). As predicted, subjects who wore nurses uni-evil, death, and badness (Williams & McMurty, 1970). More-forms delivered less shock to the "learner" than did subjectswho wore the Ku Klux KJan uniforms, which demonstratesthat the cues inherent in certain clothes can influence the wearer's aggressive behavior (Johnson & Downing, 1979).This research was supported, in part, by National Institute of MentalHealth Grant MH39083 to the second author.We would like to thank Mike Herb, Greg Jok, Kevin O'Shaughnessy,Bob Seyfried, Chuck Suhay, Mike Tato, and Will Zickle for risking injury as the football players filmed in Study 3. We are also grateful toLauren Ostergren and Mark Schmuckler for their assistance in collecting our data and to Daryl Bern for commenting on an earlier version ofthe manuscript.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to MarkFrank or Thomas Gilovich, Department of Psychology, Uris Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853.Although such studies are suggestive, they involve rather contrived situations that raise troubling questions of ecological validity and experimental demand. Accordingly, we decided toseek parallel evidence for a link between clothing cues and aggressiveness by examining the effect of a much more subtle cue,the color of a person's unifornOin a more ecologically validcontext. In particular, we examined the aggressiveness of teamswith black uniforms in two professional "contact" sports—football and ice hockey. Do teams with black uniforms appear74
BLACK. UNIFORMS AND AGGRESSIONto play with greater aggressiveness than those with nonblackuniforms, and if so, what are the processes that produce thiseffect?75Vancouver Canucks, the Pittsburgh Penguins, the PhiladelphiaFlyers, the Chicago Black Hawks, and the Boston Bruins.The three scales that directly concern badness and aggressive-Our investigation of the relationship between uniform colorand aggressiveness is divided into four parts. First, we investigated whether different colored uniforms carry the same conno-ness—good/bad, nice/mean, and timid/aggressive—were allpositively intercorrelated (median r .67). As a result of theirstatistical and conceptual interconnection, subjects' ratings ontations as the basic colors themselves. Do the uniforms of theblack-uniformed teams in the National Football League (NFL)these three scales were combined to form one overall "malevolence" index. The mean malevolence ratings of the uniforms inand the National Hockey League (NHL) look more evil, mean,both leagues are presented in Table 1. If we look first at the NFLand aggressive than the uniforms of the nonblack-uniformedteams? Next we analyzed the penalty records from these twoleagues to test whether the teams with black uniforms are penal-teams, the black uniforms (Mdn 4.97) have a decidedly moremalevolent appearance than the nonblack uniforms (Mdn ized more than their rivals. If the evil connotations of the color3.85), Mann-Whitney test, p .001.' The results are nearlyidentical for the NHL teams as well (median malevolence rat-black lead those who wear black uniforms to act unusually aggressively, then the teams with black uniforms in the NFL andings of 5.13 vs. 3.85),p .003.the NHL should be penalized more than other teams. Finally,tic differential ratings. The black uniforms in the NFL were alsowe conducted two experiments designed to test whether the re-rated as more "strong" (Mdn 5.60) than the nonblack uni-sults obtained in our analysis of penalty records were due to theuniforms' effect on the referees' judgments (Study 3) or on theforms (Mdn 4.65), Mann-Whitney 7. 3.03, p .005, andalthough there was a similar trend in the ratings of the NHLplayers' actual behavior (Study 4). We conclude with a discussion of the theoretical implications of our results, a discussionuniforms (black Mdn 5.05, nonblack Mdn 4.63), thedifference in these latter ratings was not significant, p .20.These results are consistent with earlier research in which thethat focuses on the variable, or "situated," nature of the self.Less consistent results were obtained on the two other seman-color black was shown to connote strength (Adams & Osgood,Study 1: Semantic Differential Ratingsof Team UniformsMethodBecause a uniform is a much more complex stimulus than a swatchof color, it was necessary to determine whether people's general associations to certain colors also apply to their perceptions of specific coloreduniforms. Thus, 25 subjects were paid 2 to make semantic differentialratings of the uniforms of all teams in the NFL and the NHL. Thesubjects were unfamiliar with either football or ice hockey: They didnot know the rules of either game, nor were they able to recognize theuniforms of any of the teams. Only such "naive" subjects were used inthis study to ensure that their ratings were determined solely by thecharacteristics of the uniforms themselves and not by the reputationsof the teams that wear them.The subjects (22 females and 3 males) were run in groups, 10 in onegroup and 15 in another. Subjects were shown color slides depicting theuniforms of all NFL and NHL teams. The slides were taken of the official team uniform and color swatches provided by the two leagues. Theslides showed the jerseys, pants, socks, and helmets of each team. Therewere no players modeling the uniforms. Clues to a team's home citywere eliminated unless they constituted an integral part of the uniform.The subjects rated each uniform on five 7-point semantic differentialscales: good/bad, timid/aggressive, nice/mean, active/passive, andweak/strong. Each slide was presented for 30 s. The entire experimenttook 25 min.ResultsWe considered a team to have a black uniform if at least 50%of its "colored"' uniform was black. Thus, if a team's base jersey color was black, or if its pants, helmet, and trim were black,then it was categorized as a black-uniformed team. These criteria resulted in five NFL teams with black uniforms—thePittsburgh Steelers, the New Orleans Saints, the Los AngelesRaiders, the Cincinnati Bengals, and the Chicago Bears.2 Likewise, there were five NHL teams with black uniforms—the1973). Interestingly, although past research indicates that blackis generally seen as a passive color, the black uniforms in boththe NFL and the NHL were rated as marginally more active(Mdn& — 4.9 and 5.15 for football and hockey, respectively) thanthe nonblack uniforms (Mdns 4.55 and 4.65): Z 1.89, p .10, for the NFL; U 21,p .10, for the NHL.We thus have clear evidence that the black uniforms worn byteams in professional football and ice hockey look more malevolent (as well as somewhat more active and strong) than the nonblack uniforms worn by other teams. It remains to be seenwhether this difference in people's associations to black and1Teams in both sports have two uniforms: a "colored" uniform thatis dominated by the team's primary color, and a "noncolored" uniformthat is almost always predominately white and utilizes the team's primary color only for the trim and the players' numbers. The dark uniforms are worn by the visiting team without exception in the NHL andby the home team on most occasions in the NFL.2The Bears actually wear dark blue uniforms, but they are generallyperceived to be black. For example, when we asked a random sample of15 football fans at Cornell to name, from memory, the uniform colorsof several NFL teams, 13 of the 15 stated that the Bears' uniforms wereblack. Even people with close ties to the NFL see them as black, asevidenced by the statement of CBS commentator and former NFLcoach John Madden during a 1985 encounter between the Bears andthe Dallas Cowboys that "the Bears have got to get those black helmetson the ball carrier." Because it is perceived color that is likely to influencea team's penalty record, we included the Bears as one of the black-uniformed teams. However, it should be pointed out that all significantdifferences reported in this article between teams with black and nonblack uniforms remain significant if the Bears are treated as one of theteams with nonblack uniforms.3All alpha levels reported in Studies 1 and 2 are based on MannWhitney tests of the relevant data. We report only the alpha levels whenever the raw data are presented in one of the tables, and we report theMann-Whitney statistics (U or Z, depending on the sample size) whenthey are not. Mann-Whitney tests were chosen over (tests to protectagainst the adverse effects of outliers.
76MARK G. FRANK AND THOMAS OILOVICHTable 1Malevolence Ratings of the Uniforms of Professional Football and Hockey TeamsFootball teamRatingHockey teamRatingLA HAIDERSPITTSBURGHCINCINNATINEW ORLEANSCHICAGOKansas CityWashingtonSt. LouisNY JetsLA RamsClevelandSan DiegoGreen BayPhiladelphiaMinnesotaAtlantaSan FranciscoIndianapolisSeattleDenverTampa BayNew EnglandBuffaloDetroitNY DELPHIABOSTONNew aryLA KingsMinnesotaBuffaloNY RangersNY IslandersWinnepegSt. 3.753.733.583.333.32Note. Teams in boldface capitals are those with black uniforms. The malevolence ratings represent the average rating of three semantic differentialscales: good/bad, timid/aggressive, and nice/mean.nonblack uniforms is related to how often these teams are penalized.ber of yards penalized. Because penalties for overaggressivenessStudy 2: Analyses of NFL and NHL Penalty Recordswith aggressiveness (e.g., 5 yds for "offsides," "illegal motion,"Are teams with black uniforms in the NFL and NHL penal-or "delay of game"), we selected the number of yards penalizedas the better measure of how aggressively a team plays the game.ized more often than their opponents in nonblack uniforms? Toanswer this question, we obtained the official penalty records ofNFL and NHL teams from 1970 to the most recently completed season in each sport (the 1986 season for the NFL andthe 1985/1986 season for the NHL). The records were obtainedfrom the central offices of both leagues. We started our analysisat the 1970 season because that was the year the NFL mergedwith the now defunct American Football League to form oneleague with a single set of rules and a common group of referees.We used the same cutoff point for the NHL records simply toget a comparable data set. Furthermore, had we gone back anyfarther in the NHL record book, we would shortly have been inan era when only six professional hockey teams existed.The National Football Leagueare generally more severe (e.g., 15 yds for "spearing," "clipping," or a "headslap") than for infractions having little to doAll teams were ranked in terms of the number of yards penalized for each of the seasons from 1970 to 1986. The averageranking of the five teams with black uniforms was then calculated and compared to the average to be expected if they wereno more likely to be penalized than their opponents (i.e., theaverage rank of all teams). As predicted, teams with black uniforms in the NFL are uncommonly aggressive: In all but one ofthe last 17 years these five teams were penalized more yardsthan one would expect under the appropriate null hypothesis.To test the statistical significance of these effects, the numberof yards a team was penalized in a given year was converted toa i score for each of the 17 seasons. The 17 z scores were thenaveraged for each team to get an overall measure of a team'shistory of penalties during this time period. These data, shownNearly all penalties in professional football involve movingin Table 2, indicate that the teams with black uniforms are penalized significantly more than their rivals with nonblack uni-the football a certain distance (usually 5, 10, or 15 yds) awayforms, p .02, thus providing strong support for our hypothe-from the goal to which the offending team is heading. Thesis. Football teams with black uniforms are indeed more aggres-league office provided us with complete records of both thenumber of penalties incurred by each team and the total num-sive than other teams, as measured by how much they arepenalized.
77BLACK UNIFORMS AND AGGRESSIONTable 2Mean Number of Yards Penalized (in z Scores) for National(either 3, 4, or 5 teams depending on the year) was then calculated and compared to the average to be expected if they wereFootball League Teams From 1970 to 1986no more likely to be penalized than their opponents (i.e., theaverage rank of all teams). As predicted, NHL teams that wearTeamLA CAGO"CINCINNATISan DiegoDenverDallasNEW ORLEANSSan FranciscoDetroitSeattle"NY JetsSt. LouisWashingtonLA RamsNew EnglandKansas CityIndianapolisNY GiantsTampa BaybPhiladelphiaGreen 18-0.19-0.19-0.32-0.41-0.49-0.73-0.81-1.60Note. Teams in boldface capitals are those with black uniforms.* Chicago's uniform is often thought to be black but is in fact a darknavy blue." These teams have only been in the National Football League since the1976 season.The National Hockey LeagueRecall that there are currently five teams with black uniformsin the NHL. However, only three of these teams—the BostonBruins, the Chicago Black Hawks, and the Philadelphia Flyers—wore black uniforms during the entire 16-year period under investigation. The other two switched from nonblack toblack during this time—the Pittsburgh Penguins during the1979-1980 season and the Vancouver Canucks before the1978-1979 season. The data from these latter two teams werenaturally treated as part of the nonblack sample during the earlier years and as part of the black sample after they switched.These teams provide the most informative test of the link between uniform color and aggressiveness: Will the same teambecome more aggressive after switching to black uniforms?In hockey, all penalties require the player who committed theinfraction to sit out a portion of the game, during which timehis team is outnumbered by the opposing team. Players sit outfor 2, 5, or 10 min depending on the severity of the violation.The league office of the NHL provided us with the total numberof minutes each team was penalized per season.All teams were ranked in terms of the number of minutespenalized for each of the 16 seasons from 1970-1971 to 19851986. The average ranking of the teams with black uniformsblack uniforms—like their black-uniformed counterparts inprofessional football—are unusually aggressive: Their playersspent more time in the penalty box than expected in each of thelast 16 years.To test the statistical significance of these effects, the numberof minutes a team was penalized in a given year was convertedto a z score for each of the 16seasons.The 16 z scores were thenaveraged for each team to get an overall measure of a team'shistory of penalties during this time. These data, shown in Table3, indicate that hockey teams with black uniforms incur substantially more penalties than their opponents. The differencebetween the black and nonblack teams on this measure is significant regardless of how the data from the two teams thatswitched uniforms (Pittsburgh and Vancouver) are treated:with Pittsburgh and Vancouver eliminated from the analysis,p .05; with Pittsburgh and Vancouver contributing two datapoints in the analysis (one observation for their nonblack yearsand one for their black years), p .005.What happened when Pittsburgh and Vancouver switched toblack uniforms? Did their penalty minutes increase? The relevant data, presented in Figure 1, indicate that they did, indeed.The difference in penalty minutes (in z scores) before and afterthe uniform change is significant for Pittsburgh, U 9.5, p Table 3Mean Number
Journal of Pereonality and Social Psychology 1988, Vol. 54, No. 1,74-85 Copyrigh l 1988 by the American Psychologica Association, Inc. 0022-3514/88/ 00.75 The Dark Side of Self- and Social Perception: Black Uniforms and Aggression in Professional Sports Mark G. Frank and Thomas Gilovich Cornell University
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