Proceedings Of The UN-Water Project On The Safe Use Of .
A UN-Water project with the following members and partners:UNU-INWEHProceedings of the UN-Water project on theSafe Use of Wastewater in AgricultureCoordinated by the UN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC)Editors: Jens Liebe, Reza Ardakanian
Editors:Compiling Assistant:Graphic Design:Copy Editor:Cover Photo:Jens Liebe, Reza Ardakanian (UNW-DPC)Henrik Bours (UNW-DPC)Katja Cloud (UNW-DPC)Lis Mullin Bernhardt (UNW-DPC)Untited Nations University/UNW-DPCUN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC)United Nations UniversityUN CampusPlatz der Vereinten Nationen 153113 BonnGermanyTel 49-228-815-0652Fax .eduAll rights reserved.Publication does not imply endorsement.This publication was printed and bound in Germany on FSC certified paper.Proceedings Series No. 11Published by UNW-DPC, Bonn, GermanyAugust 2013 UNW-DPC, 2013DisclaimerThe views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of the agencies cooperating in this project. The designations employedand the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UN,UNW-DPC or UNU concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of itsfrontiers or boundaries.Unless otherwise indicated, the ideas and opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent the views of their employers.Please note that the views reported from the group discussions derive from discussions between different participants attending the meeting. As such their appearance in this publication does not imply that all participants agree with the views expressed, although group consensus was sought where possible. The contributions contained herein have been lightly edited and re-formatted for the purpose of thispublication. The publishers would welcome being notified of any remaining errors identified that the editing process might have missed.
A UN-Water project with the following members and partners:Proceedings of the UN-Water project on theSafe Use of Wastewater in AgricultureAuthors:Javier Mateo-Sagasta (FAO)Kate Medlicott (WHO)Manzoor Qadir (UNU-INWEH)Liqa Raschid-Sally and Pay Drechsel (IWMI)Jens Liebe (UNW-DPC)Edited by Jens Liebe, Reza ArdakanianPublished by UNW-DPC August 2013
TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLES AND FIGURES3ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS5FOREWORD6ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS71 THE SAFE USE OF WASTEWATER IN AGRICULTURE PROJECT91.1 BACKGROUND AND SCOPE1.2 THE WASTEWATER CHALLENGE1.3 KEY DRIVERS OF WASTEWATER USE IN AGRICULTURE1.4 EXTENT, TYPES AND CATEGORIES OF WASTEWATER USE1.5 BENEFITS AND RISKS OF WASTEWATER USE1.6 MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS1.7 SUPPORTIVE POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL SETTINGS1.8 CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF THE PROJECT2 IMPLEMENTATION PHASE392.1 INTERNATIONAL KICK-OFF WORKSHOP2.2 REGIONAL WORKSHOPS2.3 INTERNATIONAL WRAP-UP EVENT2.4. UNW-AIS: THE PROJECT’S ONLINE PLATFORM3 LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE PROJECT’S WORKSHOP SERIES553.1 ECONOMICS OF RESOURCE RECOVERY AND REUSE3.2 INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY ASPECTS OF WASTEWATER USEIN AGRICULTURE3.3 RISK MANAGEMENT AND USE OF THE 2006 WHO GUIDELINES3.4 DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF REUSE-ORIENTED WASTEWATERMANAGEMENT3.5 LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE CASE STUDIES4 THE WAY FORWARD: OUTLOOK AND EXPECTATIONS73REFERENCES762 UNW-DPC Proceedings No. 11
TABLES AND FIGURESTABLESTable 1:Percentage of Urban Populations Connected to Piped Sewer Systemsin 2003-2006Table 2:Summary of Health Risks Associated with the Use of Wastewaterfor IrrigationTable 3:Top Three Capacity Needs, Before and After the Regional WorkshopsTable 4:Selected Good Practice Examples of Diagnostic AnalysisFIGURESFigure 1: Areas of Physical and Economic Water ScarcityFigure 2: Ratio of Wastewater TreatmentFigure 3: Proportion of Total Water Withdrawal for AgricultureFigure 4: Examples of Options for the Reduction of Pathogens by Using the“Multiple-barrier Approach”Figure 5: Holistic View of Institutional Capacity DevelopmentFigure 6: Capacity Development Needs Identified in the International Kick-offWorkshopFigure 7: Background of Participants at the Regional WorkshopsFigure 8: Percentage of Ministries Represented at the Regional WorkshopsFigure 9: Summary of the Capacity Development Needs that Emerged from theFive Regional WorkshopsFigure 10: Level of Interministerial Collaboration in Wastewater Management in51 Developing Countries from Asia, Africa and Latin America andthe CaribbeanFigure 11: Level of Governments’ Commitment and Budget Allocation toWastewater Management in 51 Developing Countries from Asia, Africaand Latin America and the CaribbeanFigure 12: Guidelines on Wastewater Use in Agriculture in 51 Developing Countriesfrom Asia, Africa and Latin America and the CaribbeanSafe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture 3
UNW-DPC4 UNW-DPC Proceedings No. 11
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONSANAAutoridad Nacional del AguaCNACapacity needs assessmentDALYDisability adjusted life yearFAOFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsGDPGross domestic producthaHectareHACCPHazard Analysis and Critical Control PointsICIDInternational Commission on Irrigation and DrainageIEAInstitut International de l’Eau et de l’AssainissementIWMIInternational Water Management Institutekm²Square kilometremMetrem³Cubic metreMENAMiddle East and North AfricaMCMMillion cubic metresmlMillilitresMGAPMinistry of Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries (Uruguay)NGONon-governmental organizationOECDOrganization for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentPCBPolychlorinated biphenylsPOPsPersistent organic pollutantssecSecond(s)SUWASafe Use of Wastewater in AgricultureTNDTunisian Dinar (the currency of Tunisia)UNUnited NationsUN-HabitatUnited Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNDPUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUNEPUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeUNSGABUnited Nations Secretary-General’s Advisory Board on Waterand SanitationUNW-AISUN-Water Activity Information SystemUNW-DPCUN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity DevelopmentUNU-INWEHUnited Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and HealthUS United States DollarWHOWorld Health OrganizationWMAWastewater Management Authority (Mauritius)WWAPWorld Water Assessment ProgrammeSafe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture 5
FOREWORDWastewater use in agriculture is much more commonplace than many believe. At present,approximately 20 million hectares of arable land worldwide are reported to be irrigatedwith wastewater. The unreported use of wastewater in agriculture can be expected to besignificantly higher. It is particularly common in urban and peri-urban areas of the developing world, where insufficient financial resources and institutional capacities constrain theinstalment and operation of adequate facilities for proper wastewater collection and treatment. Wastewater use in agriculture has certain benefits, providing water and nutrientsfor the cultivation of crops, ensuring food supply to cities and reducing the pressure onavailable fresh water resources. However, wastewater is also a source of pollution, and canaffect the health of users, consumers and the environment if safe practices are not applied.While populations and urban areas are growing at unprecedented rates and water scarcityis increasing, it is expected that, in the near future, the use of wastewater in agriculture willincrease further in areas where fresh water is scarce.To address and promote safe practices where wastewater is used in agriculture, sevenUN-Water members, partners and programmes have come together in a multi-year, multisectoral project: the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), theWorld Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH),UNW-DPC, the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI).With this publication I am very pleased to present to you the results of the first phase of thisjoint project, which was launched with an International Kick-off Workshop at the UN Campus in Bonn, Germany in November 2011, reached nearly 160 participants from over 70countries in a series of five regional workshops throughout Africa, Asia and Latin America,and then concluded with an international event to wrap up its first phase in June 2013 inTehran, Iran. The objective during this phase was to raise awareness among participatingMember States and identify the capacity needs in their respective countries, so that furtherwork can be done at the national level in order to develop and implement guidelines forsafe wastewater use in their countries. I wish you an interesting read.Reza ArdakanianFounding Director/Officer-in-ChargeThe UN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC)6 UNW-DPC Proceedings No. 11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe “Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture” project is a joint activity carried out under UNWater and coordinated by the UN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development(UNW-DPC). It is a joint effort of the following UN-Water members and partners: the Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization(WHO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), the UN-Water DecadeProgramme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC), the International Water ManagementInstitute (IWMI) and the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID). Manyof these project partners also took on the responsibility of organizing one or more of theworkshops in the project series.In particular, the following individuals who represented the agencies and organizationsabove were essential in facilitating this project: Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Jean Boroto, SatyaPria, Pilar Roman and Pasquale Steduto of FAO; Kate Medlicott, Robert Bos, Payden, AnaTreasure, Jonathan Drewry and Sharad Adhikary of WHO; Birguy Lamizana, Anjan Datta,Heidi Savelli, Joseph Ajayi, Vincent Sweeney and Thomas Chiramba of UNEP; Manzoor Qadir, Richard Thomas and Zafar Adeel of UNU-INWEH; Pay Drechsel, Bharat Sharma, PriyanieAmerasinghe and Liqa Rashid-Sally of IWMI; and Avinash Tyagi of ICID.In addition to those regional and national offices of the project partners who took on theorganization of regional workshops, we would also like to express our great appreciationto the following organizations: the Institut International de l’Eau et de l’Assainissement(IEA) for its support in the organization of the 1st Regional Workshop (Marrakech, Morocco); the WaterNet for its support in the organization of the 3rd Regional Workshop (Johannesburg, South Africa); the Autoridad Nacional del Agua (ANA) in Peru for its support inthe organization of the 4th Regional Workshop (Lima, Peru); the Directorate General forDisease Control and Environmental Health, Ministry of Health, Indonesia for its support inthe organization of the 5th Regional Workshop (Bali, Indonesia); and the Sharif Universityof Technology for the hosting and organizational support of the International Wrap-upEvent (Tehran, Iran).Finally, sharing knowledge and the exchange of experiences and good practice exampleswere at the heart of this project. We gratefully acknowledge the country representativeparticipants for their preparation of national reports, contribution of valuable expertiseand active involvement in the workshop series to make this a successful project.Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture 7
Linda Sandec, flickr.com8 UNW-DPC Proceedings No. 11
Chapter 1THE SAFE USE OF WASTEWATERIN AGRICULTURE PROJECT1.1 Background and ScopeIn many regions of the world, particularly in water-scarce urban and peri-urban areas andwhere competition for water is high, wastewater is being used for agricultural purposes. Whilesome countries implement agricultural wastewater use practices and guidelines that follownational regulations or international guidelines and safety standards, in many other countries, especially in the developing world, use of wastewater is an unregulated but commonpractice. The lack of implementation of guidelines and safety standards can lead to an otherwise avoidable aggravation of health risks that could result in significant secondary impacts.Although the international community recognizes that the safe use of wastewater in agriculture is an important water resources issue that needs to be addressed, efforts arestill needed to advance it in national policies and to implement safe use guidelines andpractices. The key word here is ‘safe’, and it is essential to understand that wastewater isa valuable resource.From the technological perspective, the issue of wastewater collection and treatmenthas been solved. Many countries, however, do not have access to this technology or donot have the human capacity and financial means to operate such treatment plants efficiently in order to treat all effluents prior to discharge into the environment or reuse.Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture 9
Although important, the safe use of wastewater in agriculture has often not been adequately addressed. In particular, it needs to be understood that, where water is scarce, thelack of implementation of regulations and guidelines will not prevent the use of wastewater, but will, rather, result in unsafe practices.Tackling a complex topic such as wastewater requires concerted efforts which take intoaccount various disciplines. In this project, UNW-DPC has brought together, under UNWater, six UN-Water members and partners with extensive knowledge and experience inthe field of wastewater use, all from different disciplinary backgrounds: the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO),the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), the International Commission onIrrigation and Drainage (ICID) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI).Together, these organizations have launched a global project with the aim to developnational capacities for the promotion of the safe use of wastewater in agriculture in developing countries and countries in transition. The project also aims towards enhancingthe knowledge and skills on the safe use of wastewater among staff members in selectedorganizations. This will contribute to the improvement of the overall capacity and performance of the organizations as a whole. Another important aspect of the project isto increase the understanding of the link between wastewater and health, ecosystemfunctioning and the potential benefits of wastewater reuse in contributing to development and improved well-being. It also encourages the engagement of stakeholders in allsectors and the improvement of intersectoral collaboration through the development ofprofessional skills and institutional capacities.As a programme of UN-Water, one of the main tasks of UNW-DPC is to foster the collaboration of UN-Water members and partners in their capacity development activities. Doing so adds value and increases the coherence of UN-Water and contributes to the notionof the UN “Delivering as One.”The “Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture” (SUWA) project is an example of how UNWater, in its role as the United Nations’ inter-agency coordination mechanism for all freshwater-related issues, can make an important and meaningful impact.10 UNW-DPC Proceedings No. 11
1.2 The Wastewater ChallengeHRM King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, in his former role as Chairman of theUN Secretary-General’s Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation addressing the 6th WorldWater Forum in Marseille, France on 12 March 2012 stressed the convergence of drinkingwater and sanitation issues in wastewater, calling it a“ challenge for which we need multiple solutions from all sectors and at all levels. Rightnow more than 90% of the world’s wastewater is discharged untreated into oceans, rivers or wherever else it can go. Given demographic trends, coupled with climate changeimpacts, this is a disaster in slow motion that will grow in proportion and impact. Weneed solutions for wastewater management, not only of human sewage, but also of industrial, agricultural and urban wastewater. Wastewater management can help meetmultiple objectives and offers huge potential for a green economy” (UNSGAB, 2013).He went on to state:“We know that in many parts of the world, wastewater is already used for agriculture. Thispractice should be encouraged, but it must be done safely, with the use of guidelines, suchas the globally accepted World Health Organisation guidelines for wastewater reuse. Safewater reuse is a solution, since it promotes food security in the future” (Ibid, 2013).Wastewater, in its untreated form, is already widely used for agriculture, which has beenthe practice for centuries in countries all over the world. Where it is used in agriculture,and adequate treatment is not available, the challenge is therefore to identify practicaland safe uses that do not threaten those communities which are dependent on wastewater, and take into account the importance that this resource plays in achieving foodsecurity in growing urban areas.It is important to note in this context that wastewater presents not only a challenge butalso an opportunity. On the one hand, its nutrients can be applied for agriculture andother productive uses; on the other hand, municipalities are struggling, especially inlarge metropolitan areas, with limited space for land-based treatment and disposal. Furthermore, its use can both deliver positive benefits to farmers, society and municipalities,as well as create potential health risks for farmers, their families and consumers while impacting the environment considerably. Although standards are set, these are not alwaysstrictly adhered to.Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture 11
The following sections will provide further background information on the extent, categories, types and drivers of wastewater use. It is clear that wastewater, irrespective of itsquality, type or category, is increasingly being used worldwide for irrigation – not onlyin urban and peri-urban agriculture, but also in rural areas downstream of large cities, inboth developing and industrialized countries around the world.1.3 Key Drivers of Wastewater Use in AgricultureWastewater is being increasingly used for irrigation in agriculture, both in developing aswell as industrialized countries, and is driven by a range of multiple and complementarykey drivers. Rapid population growth and high urbanization rates, particularly in citiesof the developing world, increased water scarcity and stress and agricultural water demand for urban and peri-urban food production are, among others, key interacting factors whose interdependencies influence current and future magnitudes of wastewaterproduction, treatment and use in several ways.In high-income countries, as in other places, the main driver for reclaimed wastewateruse is water scarcity. The main objective when using reclaimed water, as opposed to untreated water, is health and environmental protection. This is a common pattern in countries such as Israel, Australia or the United States of America (particularly in Californiaand Florida), where highly effective sanitation and treatment technology can be foundin planned reclamation facilities. This is a costly approach but reduces risk to a minimum.Poverty is the key underlying factor that significantly influences the above-mentionedprinciple drivers of wastewater use. In dense and rapidly growing regions, where everincreasing volumes of wastewater are being produced, insufficient financial and copingcapacities constrain the
1 the safe use of wastewater in agriculture project 9 1.1 background and scope 1.2 the wastewater challenge 1.3 key drivers of wastewater use in agriculture 1.4 extent, types and categories of wastewater use 1.5 benefits and risks of wastew
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Le genou de Lucy. Odile Jacob. 1999. Coppens Y. Pré-textes. L’homme préhistorique en morceaux. Eds Odile Jacob. 2011. Costentin J., Delaveau P. Café, thé, chocolat, les bons effets sur le cerveau et pour le corps. Editions Odile Jacob. 2010. 3 Crawford M., Marsh D. The driving force : food in human evolution and the future.
