Longman Dictionary Of Language Teaching And Applied .
LongmanDictionary OFLANGUAGETeACHING&APPLIEDLinguisticsThis best-selling dictionary is now in its 4thedition. Specifically written for students oflanguage teaching and applied linguistics,it has become an indispensible resource forthose engaged in courses in TEFL, TESOL,applied linguistics and introductory coursesin general linguistics.LongmanThis fully revised edition includes over350 new entries. Previous definitions havebeen revised or replaced in order to makethis the most up-to-date and comprehensivedictionary available.Dictionary OFProviding straightforward and accessibleexplanations of difficult terms and ideasin applied linguistics, this dictionary offers:llHelpful diagrams and tables Crossreferences, linking related subjectareas for ease of referenceThe Dictionary of Language Teaching andApplied Linguistics is the definitive resourcefor students.Dictionary OFlClear and accurate definitions whichassume no prior knowledge of thesubject matterLANGUAGETeACHING&APPLIEDLinguisticslNearly 3000 detailed entries, fromsubject areas such as teachingmethodology, curriculum development,sociolinguistics, syntax and phoneticsRichardsSchmidtFOURTHE D I T I O NLANGUAGETeACHING&APPLIEDLinguisticsJack C. RichardsRichard SchmidtFOURTHE D I T I O Nwww.pearson-books.comCVR RICH8255 04 SE CVR.indd 1Most Comprehensive Edition Ever - 350 new entries7/4/10 15:41:31
Longman Dictionary ofLanguage Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Longman Dictionary ofLANGUAGE TEACHING ANDAPPLIED LINGUISTICSJack C. Richards and Richard SchmidtFourth edition
PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITEDEdinburgh GateHarlow CM20 2JETel: 44 (0)1279 623623Fax: 44 (0)1279 431059Website: www.pearson.co.ukFirst edition published 1985Second edition published 1992Third edition published 2002Fourth edition published in Great Britain in 2010 Pearson Education Limited 1985, 1992, 2002, 2010The rights of Jack C. Richards and Richard Schmidt to be identifiedas authors of this Work have been asserted by them in accordancewith the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third party internet sites.ISBN 978-1-4082-0460-3British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the British LibraryLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataA CIP catalog record for this book can be obtained from the Library of CongressAll rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, storedin a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the priorwritten permission of the Publishers or a licence permitting restricted copyingin the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London ECIN 8TS. This book may not be lent,resold, hired out or otherwise disposed of by way of trade in any formof binding or cover other than that in which it is published, without theprior consent of the Publishers.10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 114 13 12 11 10Typeset in 9.5/12pt Sabon by 35Printed in Malaysia (CTP-VVP)
GUIDE TO THE DICTIONARYrelated wordless commonalternativeother relatedentries itmay beuseful tolook upabbreviationfor termtermexplainedat its ownalphabeticalentrypart of speechaphasia n aphasic adjalso dysphasialoss of the ability to use and understand language, usually causedby damage to the brain. The loss may be total or partial, and mayaffect spoken and/or written language ability.There are different types of aphasia: agraphia is difficulty in writing;alexia is difficulty in reading; anomia is difficulty in using propernouns; and agrammatism is difficulty in using grammatical wordslike prepositions, articles, etc.Aphasia can be studied in order to discover how the brainprocesses language.see also neurolinguisticscomputer assisted language learning nalso CALLthe use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second orforeign language. CALL may take the form ofa activities which parallel learning through other media but whichuse the facilities of the computer (e.g. using the computer topresent a reading text)b activities which are extensions or adaptations of print-basedor classroom based activities (e.g. computer programs thatteach writing skills by helping the student develop a topic andthesis statement and by checking a composition for vocabulary, grammar, and topic development), andc activities which are unique to CALL.see also interactive videoentry fora lesscommonalternativedysphasia nanother term for aphasiaentry for anabbreviationCALL nan abbreviation for computer assisted language learningentry fora wordexplainedelsewhereagrammatism nsee aphasiatermsexplainedwithin theentry
INTRODUCTIONWho is this dictionary for?This dictionary is intended for: students taking undergraduate or graduate courses in language teachingor applied linguistics, particularly those planning to take up a career inthe teaching of English as a Second or Foreign Language or in foreignlanguage teaching language teachers doing in-service or pre-service courses, such as theUCLES Diploma in Teaching English to Adults students doing introductory courses in linguistics and related areas teachers and others interested in the practical applications of languagestudyWhy this dictionary?Language teaching and applied linguistics are fields which have their owncore subject matter and which also draw on a number of complementaryfields of study. Among the core subject matter disciplines are secondlanguage acquisition, methodology, testing, and syllabus design. Thecomplementary fields of study include both the language based disciplinessuch as linguistics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics, as well as theeducation based disciplines such as curriculum development, teachereducation, and evaluation. The result is that students taking courses inlanguage teaching and applied linguistics encounter a large number ofspecialized terms which frequently occur in articles, books and lectures.This dictionary attempts to clarify the meanings and uses of these terms.The scope of the dictionaryThe dictionary was written for those with little or no background inlanguage teaching or applied linguistics.We have given special attention to English, and the majority of theexamples in the dictionary are from English, but the dictionary will also behelpful to those interested in other languages. Although the dictionary isnot intended primarily for those who already have a specialized training inlanguage teaching or applied linguistics, it will serve as a reference book inareas with which they are less familiar. It should also be useful to generalreaders who need further information about the terms which occur in thefields of language teaching and applied linguistics.vi
IntroductionLanguage teaching and applied linguisticsThis dictionary includes the core vocabulary of both language teaching andapplied linguistics. The field of language teaching is concerned with thedevelopment of language programmes and courses, teaching methodology,materials development, second language acquisition theory, testing, teachertraining and related areas. The dictionary includes terms from the followingareas of study in the field of language teaching: teaching methods and approaches in language teachingcurriculum development and syllabus designsecond language acquisitionthe teaching of listening, speaking, reading and writingcomputer assisted language learningteacher education in language teachingEnglish grammar and pronunciationlanguage testing, research methods, and basic statisticsThe dictionary also includes terms from the field of applied linguistics.For the purposes of this book, “applied linguistics” refers to the practicalapplications of linguistics and language theory and includes terms from thefollowing areas of study: introductory linguistics, including phonology, phonetics, syntax, semantics and morphology discourse analysis sociolinguistics, including the sociology of language and communicativecompetence psycholinguistics, including learning theoriesWhat the dictionary containsThis dictionary contains some 3500 entries, which define in as simple andprecise a way as possible, the most frequently occurring terms found in theareas listed above. Each term has been selected on the basis of its importance within an area and reflects the fact that the term has a particularmeaning when used within that area, a meaning unlikely to be listed inother dictionaries. Many of these terms were included in the third edition ofthis dictionary, but in preparing the fourth edition, a number of items nolonger in common use were delated, revisions were made to a number ofentries, and some 360 new entries have been added to reflect current usagein language teaching and applied linguistics.Our aim has been to produce clear and simple definitions which communicate the basic and essential meanings of a term in non-technical language.vii
IntroductionDefinitions are self-contained as far as possible, but cross references showlinks to other terms and concepts.AcknowledgementsThis edition of the dictionary has been prepared by Jack C. Richards andRichard Schmidt.We would like to thank those who contributed to earlier editions of thisdictionary, particularly Heidi Kendricks, who contributed to the first andsecond editions, the late John Platt, who contributed to the first and secondeditions, and the following who gave valuable suggestions to earlier editions:Christopher Candlin, John W. Oller (Jr), Lyle Bachman, Graham Crookes,Ken Hylands, Stephen Jacques; and Youngkyu Kim for assistance in thearea of testing, research design, and statistics.We are grateful to Ms Media Shojaee for suggestions for new items to beincluded in the fourth edition.viii
AAAAL nan abbreviation for American Association for Applied LinguisticsAAE nan abbreviation for African American EnglishAAVE nan abbreviation for African American vernacular Englishsee African American Englishability grouping nin teaching, the placement of students in groups or classes according totheir ability in a skill or subject, e.g. based on their language proficiency.Groups containing students of different ability levels are known as mixedability groups or heterogeneous groups, while groups composed of studentswith similar abilities, achievement, etc., are known as homogeneous groups.see groupingablaut na process by which an inflected form of a word is formed by changes in thevowel of the stem. For example, the past tense of sing is sang and the pluralof goose is geese.aboriginal language nsee indigenous languageabsolute nan adjective or adverb that cannot have a comparative or superlativeform. For example perfectly and unique already express the idea of “toa maximum degree” and cannot therefore be used with comparative formsas in *most perfectly, or *more unique.absolute clause (phrase, construction) na non-finite adverbial clause or other adverbial construction that is notlinked syntactically to the main clause, e.g.As far as I can tell, she is not having any problems with the course.abstract noun nsee concrete noun1
ABX discriminationABX discrimination nin psycholinguistics, a task in which three stimuli are presented ina trial. A and B are different (for example, the words ramp and lamp)and the subject’s task is to choose which of them is matched by the finalstimulus.academic discourse nthe language and discourse of academic genres. The study of academicdiscourse focuses on the nature, contexts, production and interpretation ofdiscourse and texts that occur in academic settings.see also ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES, GENRE, REGISTERacademic language nthe special registers and genres of language used in the learning of academicsubject matter in formal schooling contexts. Learning academic language isessential for mainstreaming second language learners and for studentsstudying English for Academic Purposes.academic literacy nthe ability to understand and participate in the academic discourse ofacademic genres, e.g. in fields such as science, law and literature, includingthe ability to produce and understand written and spoken texts as well asrecognizing the social norms and discursive practices of academic communities. The field of English for Academic Purposes seeks to developthe skills of academic literacy.academic vocabulary nthe most frequently occurring vocabulary in academic texts. In English acore academic vocabulary of some 600 words (e.g. words such as evidence,estimate, feature, impact, method, release) is common to a wide range ofacademic fields and accounts for around 10% of the words in any academictext. Students need to be familiar with this vocabulary if they are to complete academic courses successfully. The teaching of academic vocabularyis an aspect of English for Academic Purposes. Academic vocabulary isdetermined from analysis of a corpus of academic English. AcademicVocabulary may be compared with Technical Vocabulary, which refers towords specific to a particular topic, field or discipline.Academic Word List na list of 570 word families which is said to make up the core vocabulary ofmuch academic writing, based on an analysis of a large corpus of academic2
accent discriminationtexts but excluding the 2000 most frequent word in English. The list hasbeen widely used in the teaching of english for academic purposes.see English for Special Purposesaccent1 ngreater emphasis on a syllable so that it stands out from the other syllablesin a word. For example, in English the noun cimport has the accent onthe first syllable im- while the verb imcport has the accent on the secondsyllable -port:This car is a foreign import.We import all our coffee.see also prominence, stressaccent2 nin the written form of some languages, particularly in French, a mark whichis placed over a vowel. An accent may show:a a difference in pronunciation (see diacritic)For example, in the French word prés “meadows”, the acute accenton the e indicates a different vowel sound from that in près “near” witha grave accent.b a difference in meaning without any change in pronunciation, e.g.French ou “or” and où “where”.accent3 na particular way of speaking which tells the listener something about thespeaker’s background.A person’s pronunciation may show:a the region or country they come from, e.g.a northern accentan American accentb what social class they belong to, e.g.a lower middle class accentc whether or not the speaker is a native speaker of the language, e.g.She speaks English with an accent/with a German accent.see also dialect, sociolectaccent4 nanother term for stressaccent discrimination ndiscrimination or bias against speakers with foreign, regional, or socialclass accents3, for example in employment or in legal proceedings.see also forensic linguistics3
accent reductionaccent reduction nprogrammes designed to help second language speakers speak a secondor foreign language without showing evidence of a foreign accent. Suchprogrammes reflect the fact that many second language speakers experiencediscrimination based on their accent. There is no evidence however thatreduction in a foreign accent necessarily entails an increase in intelligibility.Hence many educators argue for a greater tolerance of foreign accents.see also English as an International Languageacceptability judgement task none of several types of tasks (or tests) that require subjects to judge whetherparticular sentences are possible or not in either their native language ora language they are learning. If the task instructions specify that subjectsare to judge whether or not a sentence is acceptable, the task is calledan acceptability judgement task; if they are asked to judge whether a particular sentence is grammatical, the task is usually called a grammaticalityjudgement task (or test).acceptable adj, acceptability na term referring to a linguistic utterance (for example, a word, a particularpronunciation, a phrase or a sentence) that is judged by native speakersto be grammatical, correct, or socially appropriate, either in general or in aparticular community or context.acceptable alternative method nsee cloze testacceptable word method nsee cloze testaccess n, vin computer assisted language learning, locating or obtaining information or data. Sequential access means locating information in sequence,for example by fast forwarding an audio cassette. Direct access or randomaccess means locating information directly, in such a way that access timeis not dependent on its location.accidental gap nin word formation, a non-occurring but possible form, for exampleunsad as an antonym of sad. When learners produce such forms, these areconsidered to be examples of over-generalization.4
acculturationaccommodation1 nshifts in the style of speaking people make such as when a person changestheir way of speaking to make it sound more like or less like the speech ofthe person they are talking to. For example, a teacher may use simplerwords and sentence structures when he/she is talking to a class of youngchildren. This is called convergence. Alternatively a person may exaggeratetheir rural accent because they are annoyed by the attitude of someonefrom the city. This is called divergence. Convergence is a strategy in whichpeople adapt to each other’s speech by adjusting such things as speech rate,pauses, length of utterance, and pronunciation.see also accent3accommodation2 nsee adaptation2accomplishments nsee aspectaccountability nthe answerability of all those involved in applied linguistics for the qualityof their work. For example, test developers need to be able to explain therationale behind the assessment techniques they use and their results to testtakers and test users; language programme administrators are accountableto clients who pay for special courses, as well as to students for the qualityof instruction; and public school programme administrators are accountable to parents and other members of the public. Accountability includesthe documentation and reporting of procedures used to develop curriculumand courses and of practices used in the hiring of teachers, selection ofmaterials, evaluation of teachers and courses and the assessment of learnersand learning outcomes.accredited interpreter nsee interpretationaccredited translator nsee translationacculturation na process in which changes in the language, culture, and system of values ofa group happen through interaction with another group with a differentlanguage, culture, and system of values. For example, in second languagelearning, acculturation may affect how well one group (e.g. a group of5
acculturation modelimmigrants in a country) learn the language of another (e.g. the dominantgroup).see also acculturation model, assimilation2, social distanceacculturation model nin second language acquisition, the theory that the rate and level of ultimatesuccess of second language acquisition in naturalistic settings (withoutinstruction) is a function of the degree to which learners acculturate to thetarget language community. Acculturation may involve a large number ofsocial and psychological variables, but is generally considered to be theprocess through which an individual takes on the beliefs, values and cultureof a new group.accuracy nsee fluencyaccuracy order nalso difficulty ordersome linguistic items, forms, and rules seem to be consistently producedwith higher accuracy than others by language learners, permitting suchitems to be ordered with respect to their relative difficulty. Accuracy ordersbased on cross-sectional research are sometimes taken as evidence foran order of acquisition, although such claims need to be reinforced throughlongitudinal method.accusative case nthe form of a noun or noun phrase which shows that it functions as thedirect object of the verb in a sentence. For example, in the German sentence:U
Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Longman Dictionary of . the teaching of English as a Second or Foreign Language or in foreign . English grammar and pronunciation language testing, research methods, and basic statistics
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