1 Basic In EMC And Power Quality - Schaffner
1Basic in EMC and Power Quality2013Basics in EMC / EMI and Power QualityIntroduction, Annotations, Applications
2Basic in EMC / EMI and Power QualityBasics in EMC and Power QualityIIntroduction51Sources of electromagnetic signals51.1Natural and technical sources of electromagnetic signals51.2Definition of noise51.2.1Frequency ranges51.2.2Differential-mode noise61.2.3Common-mode noise61.3Noise propagation61.3.1Coupling methods61.3.2Radiation62Legal requirements72.1Global legislation72.1.1CE marking for the European Union72.1.2CCC and CQC approvals for China82.1.3FCC registrations for the USA82.1.4EMC framework in Australia/New Zealand92.1.5VCCI registrations for Japan92.1.6Other international requirements992.2EMC standards2.2.1Standard classification102.2.2Common limit lines122.3Safety approvals122.3.1EMC testing as a service132.3.2The test133EMC measurements133.1Emission133.1.1High-frequency (HF) radiated emission133.1.2High-frequency conducted emission143.1.3Discontinuous interference (clicks)153.1.4Mains harmonics163.1.5Voltage fluctuations and flicker163.2Immunity173.2.1RF immunity173.2.2Conducted immunity183.2.3Radiated immunity193.2.4Transient immunity193.2.5Electrostatic discharges (ESD)193.2.6Electrical fast transients (bursts)203.2.7Surge213.2.8Power magnetic fields213.2.9Supply network21
Basic in EMC / EMI and Power Quality4Noise suppression234.1Conceptual EMC234.2Shielding234.2.1Shielded housings234.2.2Shielded cables234.3Grounding244.3.1Grounding concepts244.3.2Earthing244.4Suppression ters274.4.4Filter attenuation285Power quality285.1Definition285.1.1Frequency ranges295.2Reactors in drive systems295.2.1Need for protection295.2.2Overview of uses305.2.3Line input305.3Output solutions for motor drives315.3.1dv/dt – voltage potential jumps in relation to the time315.3.2Voltage overshoots and voltage peaks315.3.3Additional losses in the motor325.3.4Cable shields and parasitic earth currents325.3.5Bearing damage325.3.6Acoustic noise levels335.3.7Solutions for output problems33IIAnnotations to filter specifications351Filter ratings351.1Electrical requency361.1.4DC resistance361.1.5Discharge resistors361.1.6MTBF361.2Mechanical specifications361.2.1Mechanical tolerances361.2.2Filter terminals and cable cross-sections371.2.3Torque specifications383
4Basic in EMC / EMI and Power QualityEnvironmental requirements381.3.1RoHS381.3.2Vibration and bump testing391.3.3Climatic classification392Safety requirements392.1Type testing392.2Hipot testing392.3Leakage currents402.4Flammability classification412.5Fuses413Power distribution networks423.1Designation of networks423.2TN network423.2.1TN-S system423.2.2TN-C and TN-C-S systems423.3TT network423.4IT network423.5Network with one grounded phase434Installation instructions434.1Installation of filters434.2Cable connection and routing444.2.1Shield connections444.2.2Cable routing444.3EMC planning44IIITypical applications451Choke applications452Power supply applications453Medical applications464Test and measurement equipment475Motor drive applications476Energy regeneration477Renewable energies498NEMP applications519TEMPEST applications5110Communication equipment5111Shielded rooms51IVAbbreviations521.3
Basic in EMC / EMI and Power QualityI1IntroductionSources of electromagnetic signalsThe first important frequency range is the range around the powernetwork frequency, which in Europe is 50 Hz. Most loads connectedElectromagnetic signals are the result of electrical currents andto the power network are non-linear loads, i.e., they draw a currentvoltages. Whenever electricity is used to drive equipment, anthat does not follow the sinusoidal voltage. Non-linear loads haveelectromagnetic signal ensues as well. These signals can be used tothe characteristic of generating additional currents at multiples oftransmit information from one point to the next, or they can simplythe network frequency. These currents are called harmonics and arebe a byproduct of the operation of equipment. Where the signalsgenerally considered up to the 40th or 50th order. In other words,are unintended, we speak of electromagnetic noise. It is this noiseour first frequency range starts at 50Hz and ends at 2 kHz or 2.5 kHz.that can cause equipment to malfunction, and manufacturers mustFor 60 Hz networks, the range goes from 60 Hz to 2.4 kHz or 3 kHz.therefore take steps to reduce the effects of noise.From the end of the harmonics range to 9 kHz, we have a frequencyIn this chapter we will mainly look at the unwanted noise, but forrange that is not currently regulated. We will come back to this inthe purpose of explanation we will sometimes also refer to intendedthe “Power quality” chapter. Above 9 kHz, the high-frequency rangesignals. Most people are more aware of the intended signal transmis-starts. This range is also called the radio-frequency or RF range.sion than of unintended signals.Radio frequency is the collective term for all frequencies from a fewkilohertz to several gigahertz. EMC standards limit the frequency1.1Natural and technical sources of electromagnetic signalsrange to 400 GHz on the upper end, although test methods for suchTo a certain extent, electromagnetic signals are natural phenomena.frequencies have not been defined yet. Current standards defineOne of the best known phenomena is a lightning strike, which istesting methods from 9 kHz to 1 GHz, and some newer versions gonothing more than a huge current flowing from a cloud towardsup to 2 GHz or higher. The technical progress today is faster than theEarth. This current causes high electromagnetic fields. Other thandevelopment of standards. Computers and communication equip-that, we also have atmospheric radiation. These types of signals arement use fundamental frequencies that are already above 2 GHz.comparably small and are generally not considered for EMC on anLooking at harmonic frequencies, even a 2 GHz upper limit is no lon-equipment level.ger sufficient to cover RF problems.More important for our purposes are the technical sources of elec-The RF range is generally split into a conducted and a radiatedtromagnetic signals. Electrically powered equipment, as alreadyrange. For the lower part of the RF range, noise is expected to travelmentioned, is one such source. In this category we can identify twoalong lines rather than radiate from the equipment. The main reasonmain sources of electromagnetic noise: power supplies and motorfor this is that the required antenna structures are bigger for lowerdrive systems. On the other hand, we also purposely generate sig-frequencies. In other words, the physical size of most equipment isnals in order to transmit them over a distance, as in a TV station.simply not sufficient to radiate low frequency noise. While an exactWith the increase of communication and especially wireless services,frequency cannot be defined, the standards generally set the con-this element is becoming more and more important.ducted RF range from 150 kHz to 30 MHz. Some standards also startat the lower frequency of 9 kHz. The radiated range then starts at 301.2Definition of noiseMHz. The upper limit of this range depends on the standard, but itThe intended generation of signals for information transmission iswill generally be about 1 GHz, for some products 2 or 3 GHz. To sum-not considered noise, but it does have an impact on the overall EMCmarize, we have the following ranges:of equipment. This will come up again in a later chapter. In this chapter, our focus is on unwanted noise signals and their characteristics.Harmonics1.2.1ConductedRF rangeConductedRF rangeRadiatedRF rangeRadiatedRF range50 Hz–2/2.5 kHz2/2.5 Hz–9 kHz9 kHz–150 kHz150 kHz–30 MHz30 MHz–1/2/3 GHzAbove 3 GHz60 Hz–2.4/3 kHz2.4/3 kHz–9 kHzFrequency rangesA key characteristic of electromagnetic noise is its frequency. TheEMC standards generally cover the range from 0 Hz to 400 GHz.Currently, however, not all frequency ranges are completely regulated.LF rangeRegulated rangeUnregulated rangeDefinition of frequency ranges*Regulated range for some productsUpper limit depends on product5
6Basic in EMC / EMI and Power QualityThe defined testing methods for these frequency ranges areWhen we look at the measurements later, we will see that the resultexplained in a later chapter.of the measurement does not make the differentiation between thetwo types of noise. For noise suppression, however, it is crucial to1.2.2Differential-mode noiseunderstand what kind of noise signal we are dealing with.Looking at conducted signals, noise can occur between any twolines of the system. In a single-phase system this could be between1.3phase (P) and neutral (N) lines. In a three-phase system it couldElectromagnetic signals are generated in electrical and electronicNoise propagationbe phase 1 (R) and phase 2 (S). In DC systems, the noise can travelsystems and can then propagate inside the system or even outside.from plus to minus. Such noise is called differential-mode noiseThis propagation can work along lines or through radiation. Theseor symmetrical noise. The picture below shows differential-modecoupling paths are explained in the following paragraphs.noise in a single-phase system.1.3.1Coupling methodsLooking at the connections in an electrical or electronic system, weLcan identify three different coupling paths. One is galvanic coupling,LRwhich requires a direct connection between the single parts of thesystem. Second is capacitive coupling, which can happen when twoNcables of the system are routed close to each other, thus forming aparasitic capacitor. Where cable loops of different cables are laid outPEtoo close to each other, inductive coupling can occur.Differential-mode noise in single-phase systemsDifferential-mode noise is a result of parasitic components in a cir-Lcuit, such as equivalent series inductance (ESL) or equivalent seriesNresistance (ESR) or components. In an electronic system, differential-PEmode noise usually occurs at lower frequencies and is commonlyassociated with the switching frequency of a switch-mode powersupply or a motor drive.1.2.3Common-mode noiseNoise can also be conducted from any line in the system towardsGalvanic coupling e.g.through common earthCapacitive coupling e.g.through parallel linesInductive coupling e.g.through cable loopsearth. In a single-phase system, signals could go from L and Ptowards earth. This type of noise is then called common-modeCoupling paths between systemsnoise. The main difference is that common-mode noise travels inall lines in the same direction and then towards earth. The pictureGalvanic coupling effects often ensue due to common ground con-below shows common-mode signals in a single-phase system.nections. Capacitive coupling is typical for industrial applications,where power and signal lines are laid parallel over long distances.L1.3.2LRNRadiationNoise can not only propagate along direct connections but alsothrough the air via radiation. Once HF signals are generated insidea system, they are simply propagating along the path of leastPEresistance. If the structure or layout of the system provides goodantenna characteristics, the signals will use those parasitic antennasCommon-mode noise in single-phase systemsand radiate from the system into the air. There, the noise travels aselectromagnetic waves and can be picked up by other equipmentCommon-mode noise results from stray capacitances in a system,often occurring between semiconductors and heat sinks. It is moreoften found in the higher frequency range.along its path.
Basic in EMC / EMI and Power Quality2Legal requirements2.1Global legislationAs mentioned before, the rules are defined in the European directives, which are then converted into national laws. As one example,the EMC directive with the title 89/336/EU was converted into lawElectromagnetic phenomena and their effect on electric and elec-in each member state, such as the German EMC Act from Novembertronic equipment have compelled many countries to implement1992. Each directive also defines the conformity procedures thatmeasures that ensure the proper operation of equipment. Originally,can be used to show compliance with the directive. The directivesmost requirements came from military sectors and civil aviation,contain the technical contents to be harmonized. They do not con-where the need for flawless operation of equipment is stronglytain any guidelines about implementation and fining systems. As arelated to the safety of people. Only later, when the use of electronicresult, non-compliant equipment can lead to a fine in one countrycomponents expanded into almost every aspect of our lives andbut imprisonment in another.wireless transmission and communication systems became increas-The EU has produced a number of basic directives, such as the CEingly important, did requirements for electromagnetic compatibilitymarking directive, with the purpose of defining procedures appli-expand into other civil sectors.cable to many other directives. One directive defines all existingLegislation in various countries produced regulations and standardsconformity procedures. However, not all of these procedures can bewith which equipment has to comply. Since legislative systems varyused for all directives.from country to country, the compliance schemes used in eachTypical conformity routes are modules A (self-declaration), B (com-country are also very different. Where some schemes entail strongpetent body) and H (notified body). Other conformity routes wouldlegislation and mandatory approval rules, others rely on voluntarybe type approvals in connection with a certified quality systemregistration and manufacturers’ responsibility.(medical directive).The scope of the EMC directive is very general. All products likely2.1.1CE marking for the European Unionto emit or be susceptible to electromagnetic energy are covered.The concept of CE marking tries to reduce the huge number ofTo show compliance with the directive, products must not emit EMnational approvals by introducing harmonized rules. These rules areenergy in an amount sufficient to affect other equipment. At thewritten in the EU directives. The directives as such are not legallysame time, each piece of equipment must be sufficiently immunebinding to manufacturers, but all member countries are obligedagainst EM energy from other sources.to convert any approved directive into national law within a givenThis leaves a lot of room for interpretation and speculation, and theperiod of time. Any failure to do so is a direct violation of EuropeanEU soon released an unofficial document providing guidance on thelaw, and the member state doing so will be punished.EMC directive. A new version of the EMC directive is also forthcom-The CE marking in this context is the mark of the manufacturer, indi-ing to further clarify the gray areas of the initial directive.cating that the product is in compliance with all applicable direc-However complicated the EMC directive may seem, it still covers itstives. In addition to the CE marking, the manufacturer has to preparemain purpose. It removes the necessity to test to various nationala declaration of conformity stating that the described product is instandards and guarantees acceptance in all EU member states.compliance with the directives.The conformity routes permitted by the EMC directive are self-declaration, competent body route and EC-type approval by a notifiedbody. This is due to change in the new directive, however, wherethe institution of a competent body is completely removed and onlynotified bodies remain. The self-declaration route is a way for manu-CE markfacturers to take care of their approvals without involving any thirdparties. For the EMC directive, conformity can be assumed if theThis was meant to make trading easier for manufacturers, since theyproduct is in compliance with existing harmonized EMC standards.do not have to go through the ordeal of national approvals for eachWe will explain the system of harmonizing standards in a later chap-country. This requires, however, that manufacturers know whichter. The manufacturer can therefore test its product against thesedirectives exist, are approved and apply to each of their products.standards and then declare the conformity.The EU does not offer comprehensive information on this topic. ForWhere harmonized standards do not exist or testing is uneconomi-this reason, the European system is very often regarded as difficultcal, the manufacturer has the option of involving a competent body.and prohibitive.The manufacturer prepares a technical construction file (TCF), whichshould contain all EMC-relevant information, including testing data.The TCF is then checked by the competent body, and if the EMC7
8Basic in EMC / EMI and Power Qualityconcept is clear and acceptable, the competent body will issue aThe compulsory product certification requirements cover 135certificate.products divided into 20 categories, including household appli-For radio transmitting devices (for example, radio telephones), theances, motor vehicles, motorcycles, safety goggles, medical devices,involvement of a notified body is mandatory. The manufacturer haslighting apparatuses, cables and wires. CQC has been appointed toto submit documents and one sample to the notified body for test-undertake the work of compulsory product certification for 17 cat-ing and approval.egories within the CCC catalog.As mentioned before, the situation with competent and notifiedbodies will change in the future. The new directive no longer con-2.1.3tains the competent body approval route. The notified body willApprovals for the American market are usually related to the FederalFCC registrations for the USAassume the tasks of the competent body. However, the involve-Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC is an independentment of notified bodies is no longer mandatory, even if harmonizedUnited States government agency, directly responsible to Congress.stand ards are not used. Approvals of radio transmitting devices areThe FCC was established by the Communications Act of 1934 andno longer in the scope of the EMC directive, having been handledis charged with regulating interstate and international communica-for some time now by the telecom directive. The changes from thistions by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable. The FCC’s jurisdic-new EMC directive will come into effect on July 20, 2007, with antion covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. posses-additional two-year transition period.sions.The most commonly referred to regulation is part 15, which covers2.1.2CCC and CQC approvals for Chinaall commercial products. Like the European standards, the FCC rulesCQC develops voluntary product certification services called CQCdefine environments for residential and industrial areas.Mark Certification for products that fall outside the compulsoryEquipment used in residential areas requires verification and certifi-certification catalog. The aim is to protect consumers and proper-cation. The equipment has to be tested in a test site and by testingty, safeguard consumer rights and interests, improve the productpersonnel listed by FCC.quality of domestic enterprises, increase product competitivenessIn recent amendments to the rules, FCC now enables manufacturersin the international market and facilitate the access of foreignto use the same testing methods as laid out in CISPR 22, with onlyproducts to the domestic market. CQC, as the body that earlierminor additional rules. Other commonly used rules of the FCC areconducted quality certification activities and a high authoritativethe parts 18 for industrial equipment and 68 for telecommunicationbody in China, is a brand well known in the world. This, in turn,equipment.can greatly enhance the brand image of the enterprises it certi-Approval
EMC standards generally cover the range from 0 Hz to 400 GHz. Currently, however, not all frequency ranges are completely regu-lated. The first important frequency range is the range around the power network frequency, which in Europe is 50 Hz. Most loads connected to the power network are non-linear loads, i.e., they draw a current that does not follow the sinusoidal voltage. Non-linear loads .
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