Produced By Mangroves For The Future (MFF) India
Produced by Mangroves for the Future (MFF) India20, Anand Lok, August Kranti Marg, New Delhi-110 049withfinancial support of Norad and Sida 2010. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.ISBN 978-2-8317-1264-2Citation: MFF, India. (2010). Mangroves: Soldiers of our Coasts. New Delhi: TERI, 32 ppAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by anymeans without the prior permission of the IUCN and MFF.The designation of geographical entities in this report, and presentation of the material,do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of International Unionfor Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) or The Mangroves for theFuture (MFF) Initiative concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, orof its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The viewsexpressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or the MFF Initiative,nor does citing of trade names or commercial processes constitute endorsement.Author: Roshni SenguptaManaging Editor: Madhu Singh SirohiSenior Editor: Arshi AhmadCreative Head: Priyabrata Roy ChowdhuryDesign: Santosh GautamImage Research: Yukti GargPre-press: Mahfooz AlamProduction Head: T RadhakrishnanTechnical Review: Dr V Selvam (MSSRF), Dr N M Ishwar (IUCN)and Dr J R Bhatt (MoEF)Picture Credits:1-2 Mangrove Fruit: Peripitus; Black Mangrove: Lanaré Sévi; 14-15Mangrove Roots: NOAA; 18-19 Deforestation: Joe Hughes; 22-23 Olive Ridley Turtle:Bernard GagnonFirst published in 2010 byThe Energy and Resources InstituteTERI PressDarbari Seth Block, IHC Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi - 110 003, IndiaTel. 2468 2100/4150 4900, Fax: 2468 2144/2468 2145India 91 Delhi (0)11Email: teripress@teri.res.in # Website: http://bookstore.teriin.orgAvailable from: IUCN India OfficeThis book is printed on recycled paper.
AcknowledgementsThe publication of this book could not have beenpossible but for the efforts put in by a large numberof individuals. We would like to express our heartfeltthanks to the MFF Secretariat, Bangkok, for theirvaluable inputs on contents and design. We receivedsupport and encouragement from the MFF/IUCN Indiaoffice and would like to thank them for their technicalsupport and guidance. We also thank Dr V Selvam ofthe M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) forinformation and statistics on Indian mangroves.We would like to express our gratitude to the Ministryof Environment and Forests, Government of India,specifically Dr J R Bhatt, and other members of theNational Coordinating Body (MFF India), for theirvaluable advice and assistance.Finally, we would like to thank TERI Press for developingthe content, designing, and bringing out the book.CONTENTSGreen sentinels of the coasts06MANGROVEs, Old and new08MANY MANGROVES!10IT’S IN THE ROOTS12ROOTS: THE BIG PICTURE14MANGROVES AROUND THE WORLD16AT HOME IN THE MANGROVES18DYING MANGROVES20Why Mangroves are important22SAVE THE MANGROVES24TIME to Act!26MANGROVE mastermind28Glossary30
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTSGreensentinelsof thecoasts06-07In the tropicsMangroves are not found everywhere. They are found only in the tropicaland subtropical regions, mainly between latitudes 25 N and 25 S. Theygrow along the land–sea interface, in bays, estuaries, lagoons,and backwaters.Being a mangroveMangroves are trees or shrubs, often clustered together. Trees can grow to aheight of 25 metres. Large groups of mangroves and other plants found here arecalled mangrove swamps, mangrove forests or mangals.Did you know that someone protects our coasts and sea shores? No it isnot the Coast Guard. Nor is it the Navy. Our protectors do not speak. Theygo about their functions silently. That is why they are called the ‘silentgreen sentinels of the coasts’. They are mangroves!Mangrove’s swampy homeMangroves occur in the marshy areas between theshore and the sea, called intertidal zones. These areasare flooded by the sea every day. Mangrove forestsgrow along the coasts of seas with high salt content.Intertidal zonesare tough placesfor plants togrow—duringlow tides, thesezones areexposed to air,while duringhigh tides, theyare covered bysaltwater.Photo courtesy: Minna EppsGREEN ZONEOf the totalmangrove coverage,more than 40 percent occur in Southand South East Asia.Australian aborigineseat the fruit ofmangrove trees. Butfirst, they removeharmful tannins fromthe fruits by soakingthem in mangrove mudfor three to seven days.
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTSmangroves, OLd and NewMangroves belong predominantly to the family of plants known asRhizophoraceae. The family is divided into different genera. Let’s take a closerlook at the different types of mangroves.East and westThere are two main regions of mangrove vegetation—the Eastern hemisphere (easternAfrica, Asia, including India, and Australasia) and the Western hemisphere (Americasand western Africa). The Eastern hemisphere is considered to be the original homeof mangroves, and, thus, the mangroves hereare called the old world mangroves. TheWestern hemisphere mangroves arecalled new world mangroves.Mangrove forests are among theworld’s most productive ecosystems.08-09A world of differenceThe old world mangrovesare more diverse, with morespecies—over 40 speciesagainst about 10 in thenew world. There is also agreat deal of segregationbetween the mangrovesin the old world and thenew world. Two of themain genera of mangrove,Rhizophora and Avicennia,contain different species inthe old and new worlds.Mangrove countriesIndonesia has the largestarea under mangroves,with 30 per cent ofthe global coverage,followed by Brazil,Australia and India.GREEN ZONEGlobally, there are 60 truemangrove species in 27genera and 20 families.In India, thereare 34 species oftrue mangroves.Bhitarkanika (Orissa)has 31 species, theSundarbans have 27,and the Andaman &Nicobar islands have24 species.
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTSMany mangroves!What are the most common mangrove species? What are their maincharacteristics and what is special about them? Let’s find out.Colour me red!Have you ever heard of the red mangrove? It is the most common mangrovespecies in the world. Red mangroves (genus Rhizophora) are well adapted to saltywater and salty swamps. Black mangrove, white mangrove, and buttonwood growaround red mangrove clusters.PropaguleThe red mangrove creates an elongated seedpod from its bark called a propagule. This takesroot next to the plant and produces a new tree.10-11What do I look like?One can recognize a red mangrove by its prop roots,which help the plant to remain above water. They alsoprovide extra support and enable the plant to take inoxygen. The red mangrove is viviparous, that is, its seedsgerminate while still attached to the tree. This is unlikemost plants, whose seeds germinate in soil.Apple of the eyeMangrove apple (Sonneratia alba) is also acommon type of mangrove plant. Mangroveapples are cream-coloured with a grey or darkbrown bark. They have cone-shaped projectionscalled pneumatophores, which help in breathing.Leaves are rounded with a leathery texture.GREEN ZONEMangrove trees arehermaphrodites. Thismeans that they haveboth male and femaleflowers on the sametree, and pollinate andreproduce on their own.Prop rootsFlowerLeavesMangrove appleFruit
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTSIt’s in the rootsHow do mangroves survive salty water, waterlogged soil, and lack ofoxygen? What is so special about them? Is it their roots?Wonder rootsMangrove roots not only provide support, but also help the plant to breathe, aswell as withstand currents and storms. Their aerial roots have tiny pores calledlenticels that take in air. The roots also contain large spaces called aerenchyma,which transport air from one part of the plant to another.No salt, please!Mangroves have special mechanisms to make them salttolerant. Some mangroves take in salt and excrete it throughsalt glands, while others filter salts at the root zone itselfby means of reverse osmosis, thereby taking in only water.There are some mangroves that accumulate salt in theleaves, which they shed during summer.12-13Kicking the water habitMangrove plants survive in very little freshwater. They have thick, waxy leaves to preventloss of water by evaporation. Mangroves growin waterlogged soil with little oxygen. So, theirroots absorb gases like oxygen and nitrogendirectly from the atmosphere.Mangrove roots have threemain functions—providingsupport, obtaining nutritionfrom the soil, and taking inoxygen from the air.GREEN ZONEMangrove roots havespongy tissue inside,through whichoxygen passes andspreads throughoutthe plant.Mangroves have lenticels to take in air, andfinger-like roots, or pneumatophores, thatproject out of the mud in great numbers.
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTSRoots: the big pictureNow that we know what mangroves are and the special features oftheir roots, let’s find out what they actually do. How do these specialroots help the environment?Cleaning waterMangrove roots slow the flow of water, enabling sediments to bedeposited on the roots. A number of harmful metals and particlesget deposited on the roots, thus reducing the contamination ofwater. Underwater, a number of organisms cling on to the roots andact as filter-feeders. These filter-feeders clean the water of the siltand nutrients. As a result, clean and clear water goes out into the sea,because of which the coral reefs flourish.14-15Protecting the coastsMangroves protect coastal areas from erosion by stabilizing the shorelines with theirspecialized root systems. They also protect the coasts from storms, hurricanes, andtsunamis. The big roots help in cutting down the energy contained in large waves.Food and lodging!Mangroves are home to a large number of fishes, crabs, sea snails, shellfish, and algae.The leaves and shoots are food for monkeys and small insects. The fallen leaves providenutrients to the surrounding mangroves, as well as to the coral reefs. The mangrove fruitis eaten by people, while the leaves are used as source of tea, medicine, and livestockfeed. Mangrove flowers are important in honey production.Mangroves slow down theforce of sea waves andthus, protect the coastline.Photo courtesy: Pradeep VyasHoney collectors in the SundarbansGREEN ZONEIndia is home to morethan 7 per cent ofthe world’s mangroveforests. Mangrovesmake up for 8 per centof the Indian coastline.Eighty per cent of theseforests are found on theeastern coast of India.Roots trapsilt andsediments thatmay containdangerousheavy metals.As a result,clear waterwashes out intothe sea.
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTS16-17Mangroves arefound in overtwo-thirds of thesaltwater coastalareas of tropicaland subtropicalAfrica, Asia,Australia, and Northand South America.Mangrovesaround theworldWhat are the major mangrovehabitats around the world? Let’s takea trip along the coasts and discoverwhere these unique forests are found.In river deltasMangrove forests are common in thedeltas of large Asian rivers. The Sundarbans,in the delta of the Ganga spread over WestBengal in India and Bangladesh, is theworld’s largest mangrove forest.Coast to coastMangroves are found in warmer areas, alongthe tropical and subtropical coasts of Africa,Australia, Asia, and North and South America.The mangroves along the southern coast ofAsia are rich in biodiversity. These forests formone of the most important ecosystems in theIndian subcontinent. Many of the islands inthe Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal,the South China Sea, and the Pacific Ocean aremangrove habitats.The Asian giantsThere are mangroves along the coastsof Borneo, Sumatra, and Sulawesi islandsin Indonesia. Large mangals grow in theAndaman and Nicobar islands in theBay of Bengal and along the coast in theIndian state of Gujarat.Sundarbans, West Bengal, IndiaGREEN ZONEIn the temple townof Chidambaram, nearPichavaram, TamilNadu, the thillai tree(Excoecaria agallocha),a type of mangrove,is believed to haveactive chemicals thatcure leprosy.
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTS18-19At home in the mangrovesMangrove forests are home to a variety of animals, insects, amphibians, andfishes. Algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which require a hardsurface to support themselves, use the muddy surface of the mangal as a shelter.Designed to surviveSessile organisms (like mussels and barnacles) survivethe fast tidal movements in mangrove forests byanchoring themselves to the roots. Mobile fauna avoidthe tide by burrowing in the mud (crabs) or climbing upand down tree trunks (monkeys). The mudskipper fishcan stay alive out of water because its gills are inside anenlarged cavity that contains both water and air. Thetissue within the cavity can absorb oxygen from the airas long as it remains moist.Lizards in mangrove habitat have a nasal glandthat secretes salt into the nasal cavity from which it issneezed out; crocodiles use a number of salt glandslocated on the tongue; while sea turtles have saltMangroves are nestingglands modified into tear glands ingrounds for hundreds oftheir eyes.species of birds, which buildnests on the branches.The tangle of mangrove roots hide young fishes and shrimps from larger predators.Safe havenTree-climbing crabs and sea snails often climb up mangrove roots to protect themselvesfrom large predators. The tangled roots of the trees provide a resting and hiding place foryoung fishes and shrimps. Larger animals such as the proboscis monkey and birds like theheron use the mangals as homes and as nesting sites respectively.Food and nutritionMonkeys and small insects living on mangrove branches snack on the shoots andleaves. Fallen leaves are a good source of nutrients within the mangrove habitat.These leaves are also washed away closer to the surrounding coral reefs, where theyare broken down by crabs. The tiny remnants of the mangrove leaves are furtherbroken down by micro-organisms and converted into useful minerals.Mangrove snails feed on algae and other plant material,and are in turn eaten by the larger fishes and birds.GREEN ZONEMangrovebranches provideshelter fortree-climbing creatureslike monkeys.Mangroves are veryleafy, and take in alot of carbon dioxidefrom the atmosphereto make biomass.This reduces theamount of carbondioxide in theatmosphere.
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTSDying mangrovesMangroves help in protecting coastlines from erosion and storms, providetimber, and are a breeding ground for fishes. But mangroves are now in dangeracross the world.Reasons for destructionShrimp farming is a major reason for the destruction of mangroves. These forests arethe natural habitat of shrimps. Large areas of mangroves are cleared to create artificialponds for shrimps. This has also led to the loss of habitat for other fish.Rising temperatures, rising seasRising sea levels due to climate change and the consequent rising temperaturespose a grave threat to mangroves. Large areas of coastal mangroves could be lostif sea levels continue to rise due to the expansion of the oceans and melting ofpolar ice caps.20-21Development at a costMangrove forests are also cleared, filled inand dug under for agriculture, aquaculture,and other development activities. Pollution,including oil spills, is also a major threat tomangroves. Building of ports and jetties isanother reason for cutting downof mangroves.From the pages of historyDuring the Vietnam War, 11 million gallonsof herbicide known as Agent Orange wassprayed over more than a 1000 squarekilometres of mangrove forests in theMekong Delta. Even today, not a singlemangrove plant grows in this region.If mangroves are destroyed,migratory birds will no longer havea safe haven to halt and rest.GREEN ZONEThe increasinghuman population isexerting tremendousstress on themangroves, withland reclamationsand discharge ofwaste causing theirdegradation.Mangrovedeforestation iscontributing todecline in fisheries,degradation ofclean water supplies,increasing salinity ofcoastal soils, erosion,and land subsidence.
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTS22-23WhY Mangroves are ImporTAntThe destruction of mangroves will have an impact not only on the animals thatlive in the mangroves, but also on people who depend on these forests.Olive Ridley turtleHome of endangered wildlifeThe Sundarban mangrove forests are home to more than 35 species of reptiles,270 species of birds, and 42 species of mammals. Among them is the saltwater orestuarine crocodile—the largest of all living reptiles. In India, this globally endangeredspecies is also found on the Andaman and Nicobar islands.Pride of BengalAbout 400 tigers—the largest population of wild tigers—live and swim among themangrove islands and also hunt scarce prey like chital deer, barking deer, and wildpig. The Sundarbans is also the nesting place of the endangered Olive Ridley turtles,one of the smallest species of marine turtles in the world. Other endangered animalsinclude the white-bellied sea eagles and the Indian smooth-coated otters.Photo courtesy: Pradeep VyasGREEN ZONEThe uniqueSundarbans gettheir name from themangrove speciesHeritiera fomes,locally known asSundari, a commonspecies in the region.Life and livelihoodsCoastal communities depend on mangrovesfor their livelihood. These forests provide woodproducts like timber, poles, firewood, charcoal,and tannin. Non-wood products include thatch,honey, wildlife, fish, fodder, and medicine. Apartfrom the products, mangroves provide coastalprotection against wave and wind erosion, as wellas moderate the impact of storms and cyclones.Sea eagleRoyal Bengaltiger: pride ofthe SundarbansEstuarine crocodile
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTSSave the mangrovesEfforts are being made to save mangroves and regenerate the lost forests.Various methods are being adopted in different parts of the world.Giving life’Fixing’ or sowing mangrove seeds (propagules) is done in salt marshes, swamps orintertidal zones, which are flooded daily by sea water. The seeds also require rainfallfor some time during the growth period. This method is called artificial regeneration.In many parts of coastal India, mangrove forests are being regenerated in a bid tosave this unique ecosystem from destruction and protect our fragile coastline.This is crucial for the coastal communities, who benefit greatly from such ahealthy ecosystem.Lending a helping handMangroves for the Future (MFF) is amajor initiative to save the mangroves.MFF works with governments andcommunities to conserve coastalecosystems throughout the IndianOcean region. After the destructioncaused to mangroves by the tsunamiin 2004, there is a special focus onmangroves. Initially, MFF focused onthe countries worst affected by thetsunami—India, Indonesia, Maldives,Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.It has recently expanded to includePakistan and Vietnam.24-25Mangrove forests in estuaries are clearedto provide lagoons to raise shrimps.GREEN ZONEScientists believethat destruction ofcoastal mangroveswill lead to largescale flooding ofcoastal areas ifthe sea level risesbecause ofclimate change.Artificial regeneration of mangroves
MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTS26-27TIME TO ACT!Mangroves are our natural barriers and defence against severe storms, cyclones,and tsunamis. Their role in coastal protection, and in reducing the loss of humanlives and damage to property has been well established, especially after the Orissasupercyclone, Cyclone Nargis, and the tsunami of 2004. In addition to being thesoldiers of our coasts, mangroves improve the livelihoods of fishing communities,provide salt-tolerant genotypes and help in carbon sequestration. Therefore, it isimportant to save this unique ecosystem before it is lost forever.Helping the mangroves: initiatives of the Ministry of Environment and Forests,Government of IndiaPlanting mangroves is one of the important components of coastal management andthe Ministry of Environment an
Eighty per cent of these forests are found on the eastern coast of India. 14-15 GREEN ZONE MANGROVES: SOLDIERS OF OUR COASTS Mangroves slow down the force of sea waves and thus, protect the coastline. Roots trap silt and sediments that may contain dangerous heavy metals. As a result, clear water washes out into the sea. Honey collectors in the .
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2.5 Mangroves may keep up with sea level rise 22 Section 3. Managing mangroves for coastal defence 24 3.1 Integrating mangroves into coastal defence strategies 24 3.2 Mangroves as part of coastal zone management 28 3.3 Bringing the mangroves back 31 S
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