Stakeholder Engagement Strategies For Participatory Mapping
S O C I A LS C I E N C ET O O L SF O RC O A S T A LP R O G R A M SStakeholder EngagementStrategies forParticipatory Mapping
Social Science Tools for Coastal ProgramsStakeholder Engagement Strategiesfor Participatory MappingAbout This PublicationSome of the most challenging decisions in coastal management stem from therelationship between people and the environment. NOAA provides technicalassistance to coastal management professionals addressing complex human-basedproblems. This publication, “Stakeholder Engagement Strategies for ParticipatoryMapping,” is the fourth in a series of guides developed to bring information tothis audience about the use of social science tools in their field of work. For moreinformation, or to obtain additional copies, contact our office at coastal.info@noaa.gov.NOAA’s Office for Coastal Management“Coastal management” is the term used by communities and organizationsstriving to keep the nation’s coasts safe from storms, rich in natural resources, andeconomically strong. The national lead for these efforts is NOAA’s Office for CoastalManagement, an organization devoted to partnerships, science, and good policy. Thisagency, housed within the National Ocean Service, oversees major initiatives thatinclude the National Coastal Zone Management Program, Coral Reef ConservationProgram, Digital Coast, and National Estuarine Research Reserve System.
Table of ContentsIntroduction.1Background.2How Participatory Mapping Is Used.3When Is Participatory Mapping Appropriate?.5Identifying the Stakeholders.7Considerations for Working with Stakeholders.8Knowing Your Stakeholders.8Transparency.10Having the Right Skills.10Developing a Mapping Strategy.11How Will the Map Be Used or Analyzed to Make Decisions?.13What Are Stakeholders Going to Map? .13What Methods Will Stakeholders Use to Map Things?.14How Will the Maps Be Used in the Future?.14Testing the Mapping Strategy.17Collecting Information.18Validating and Analyzing Information.18Reporting Information.19Conclusion.20References.21
Photo Credit: J. de Los ReyesPhoto Credit: A. Ahmed
1IntroductionParticipatory mapping is a general term used to define a growing toolboxof techniques that can help communities make land use decisions.These maps go beyond the physical features portrayed in traditional maps; nearlyeverything valued by the community can be expressed in spatial terms and representedon a participatory map, including social, cultural, and economic features. The processused to create the maps is as valuable as the maps themselves, since participantsoften find themselves more fully engaged than they would have otherwise.This publication provides some simple strategies for facilitators leading a participatorymapping process. While there are many aspects of participatory mapping, thispublication focuses primarily on stakeholder involvement. Topics addressed include Understanding participatory mapping basics Knowing when participatory mapping is appropriate Identifying and working with stakeholders Developing a mapping strategy Collecting information Validating and analyzing information Reporting informationAnother document in this series of social science publications produced by theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) that could be helpfulwhen considering participatory mapping is “An Introduction to StakeholderParticipation.” Contact the NOAA Office for Coastal Management to receive a copy.
2BackgroundSpatial representations of coastal issues, namely maps, have long been a criticallyimportant tool for coastal resource managers. Maps allow for a clearer understandingof an endless variety of coastal issues from population growth to sea level riseto ways that people use coastal resources for recreation and livelihood. Manycoastal management agencies employ staff members devoted almost exclusivelyto mapping, and they often specialize in organizing and depicting spatialinformation through the use of a geographic information system (GIS).More recently, traditional top-down, agency-driven decision-making in coastalresource management has moved toward processes that involve stakeholders(those who have an interest in or are affected by a decision) and acknowledge theimportance of public attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, and knowledge. Increasingly,GIS specialists and others involved in mapping are finding themselves in a new roleof engaging stakeholders—working with the public to collect, depict, and interpretnew information that helps when making decisions about coastal resources.Known as participatory mapping, this convergence of stakeholder participationand mapping techniques is becoming a popular tool for coastal managers.From maps drawn literally in the sand to complex on-line data collection andmapping using GIS, participatory mapping can simultaneously provide A way to engage stakeholders near and far Objective local information on coastal resources Traditional knowledge and practices from the community Information on how communities perceive, value, and use coastal resources A focal point for discussions on coastal issues A valuable tool to support decision-making Graphical and easily understandable communication toolsThe literature offers a great variety of definitions for participatory mapping and relatedterms, such as participatory GIS, community mapping, and public participation GIS.Generally, however, the literature describes participatory mapping as a general term forgathering and mapping spatial information to help communities learn, discuss, buildconsensus, and make decisions about their communities and associated resources.
3How Participatory Mapping Is UsedParticipatory mapping is a powerful tool that increases stakeholder involvement andprovides a means for participants to express their ideas in an easily understandablevisual format. Participatory mapping is commonly used in the following ways. To create maps that represent resources, hazards, community values, usage(e.g., for recreation or other visitor use), perceptions, or alternative scenarios To gather traditional knowledge and practices and to collect information (hazards,environmental, socioeconomic, visitor use, etc.) for assessments or monitoring To identify data gaps To inform other data collection methods (e.g., formal surveys, interviews, etc.) To evaluate existing programs, plans, and activities To facilitate the decision-making process To assist with data gathering for research To empower stakeholders To conduct trends analysis To educate stakeholders about issues and interrelationships of resources outsidetheir immediate areas of concern
4Coastal Community Resilience Assessmentand Planning for the Indian OceanA guidebook, How Resilient Is Your Coastal Community? A Guide for EvaluatingCoastal Community Resilience to Tsunamis and Other Hazards, was oneresult of an international coalition dedicated to helping communities in SriLanka, Thailand, and Indonesia protect themselves from natural hazards.During the development of the publication, the team piloted many of the assessmenttechniques within coastal communities that were most impacted by the December26, 2004, Indian Ocean Tsunami. The community resilience assessments includedthe use of participatory mapping. This mapping, combined with other stakeholderengagement methods, allowed organizations with limited knowledge of localissues, needs, customs, and values to conduct meaningful assessments. Theseassessments are helping all three countries rebuild in a more resilient manner.Organizations on that team included the NOAA Pacific Services Center, U.S.Agency for International Development, Asian Disaster Preparedness Center,University of Rhode Island Coastal Resources Center, and Tetra Tech Inc.Participatory Mapping Methods Community mapping with paper maps Conversion of community paper maps into GIS maps In community centers, distribution of tsunami evacuation maps that werecreated using GIS to incorporate the data from the community mapping effortsChallenges Outsiders coming into communities need to build relationships and trust first. In some of the countries, cultural differences made it more difficultto get community values from both genders, but this informationis vital for conducting a comprehensive assessment. Many community members were not accustomed to reading maps and aerialimages, so in many cases the community members drew their own maps.
5When Is ParticipatoryMapping Appropriate?Because every situation is different, it isn’t always clear when participatory mappingshould be considered. Participatory mapping generally isn’t appropriate for minordecisions because the process can be time-consuming and requires significant planning.More complex situations with far-reaching impacts, however, usually warrant some typeof stakeholder involvement. Participatory mapping may be an option in these cases.Consider using participatory mapping for the following situations.Initial data collection when . . . A better understanding of the issue is needed and themaps will be a valuable communication tool Perceptions are needed to help guide next steps Traditional knowledge can contribute to scientificunderstanding and facilitate future interactions Stakeholder engagement is needed to monitor and evaluatethe success of existing programs, plans, and activities Additional information is needed to better inform otherstakeholder engagement processes such as formal surveysValidating and ground-truthing collected data when . . . Maps will visually enhance stakeholders’ understanding of the data collected Uncertainty exists about certain data and their spatial relevance The process will help stakeholders better understand the issueyou are trying to address with the data collectedDecision support when . . . Visually displaying scenarios will enhance stakeholderunderstanding and awareness Visually displaying alternative solutions will providestakeholders with an opportunity to provide feedback The process can enhance other stakeholder-engagementmethods—for example, during a focus group to help visualizeissues and resources and thereby stimulate discussion
6 The process will help develop alternative solutions generated by stakeholders The maps can help foster a more holistic or ecosystem approachby educating stakeholders about the issues and interrelationshipsof resources outside their immediate areas of concernFostering stakeholder support when . . . The process can help empower the stakeholders to develop solutions Projected solutions may be controversial, rather than unanimous—forexample, creation of a no-take zone in a marine protected area The process can help foster successful implementationSince participatory mapping requires significant time and resources, it may not be feasibleor effective for all situations. Use participatory mapping when the process will benefitthe overall purpose. The following sections provide some strategies for proceeding.Resilience-Minded Regional Planning in Mobile Bay, AlabamaThe Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce led a series of regional planning efforts thatfocused on 12 separate but interrelated systems that are crucial to a healthy community.The effective use of this planning framework required the support of a large numberof partners represented by about 150 people from government, nongovernmentalorganizations, academia, and the private sector. Participatory mapping methods were usedto guide the data collection. Through these methods, participants from widely varyingbackgrounds were able to view, discuss, assess, and contribute data and information.Participatory Mapping Methods Paper maps were printed for use in a series of public meetings. Participantswere able to see the maps before the meetings, during the meetings whileexperts explained information and asked questions, and after the meetings.Challenges Participants had only a limited time to interact with the team after the meeting. This was the first exposure that most participants had to the project. Thus, themeeting time was divided among introducing the project, introducing the data,and soliciting input.
7Identifying the StakeholdersA key first step in all stakeholder engagement is to identify or inventory the relevant stakeholders.Involving these individuals and organizations early on will help ensure the long-term success of theproject. The following table describes five categories into which most stakeholders will fit, and providesexamples of each. This table can be used to start a group brainstorming session for this task.Table 1: Categories of StakeholdersStakeholder CategoryDescriptionExamplesPeople who live, work,play, or worship ator near a resourceThose whose everyday lives and well-beingare directly connected to a resource orissue. This group is essentially made upof the “neighbors” of the issue, and theyshould be invited to participate becausetheir everyday lives may be impacted.Residents, resource users, businesses,community and civic organizations,interest groups and nongovernmentalorganizations (NGOs), government,Native American tribes, and the mediaPeople interested in theresource, its users, itsuse, or its non-useThose who assign values to a resource andare concerned about the way that resourcesare used. This group includes those whoextract value from resources, as well asthose more interested in conserving orprotecting resources. This group shouldbe invited to participate because of thesheer interest in the resource or issue.Businesses, resource users, interestgroups and NGOs, community andcivic organizations, government,and Native American tribesPeople interested inthe processes used tomake decisionsThose deeply interested in the legal andprocedural aspects of an issue. This groupincludes those who want to ensure thatall relevant policies and procedures areobserved in reaching a decision. They shouldbe involved because of their attention toprocedural detail and their ability to deraila process or litigate final decisions.Interest groups and NGOs,government, the media, residents,and Native American tribesPeople who arefinancially involvedThose whose money is directly or indirectlyused to fund resource management throughtaxes, fees, and other means. This groupwants to ensure that money is spent wiselyand should be invited to participatebecause the government is accountablefor how it spends public dollars.Residents, resource users,businesses, and governmentPeople who representcitizens or are legallyresponsible forpublic resourcesThose who have the legal authority andobligation to manage natural resources.Members of this group want to ensure thebest final decision is reached and should beinvited to participate because it is their duty.Government(Meffe and others 2002)
8Considerations for Workingwith StakeholdersKnowing Your StakeholdersAfter developing an initial understanding of the stakeholders involved in an issue,performing a more detailed stakeholder analysis can be useful. Age, gender, culture,and many other variables influence how a participatory mapping effort will bereceived. A stakeholder analysis provides this additional information. The morethat is known about the stakeholders, the better the process and the results. Astakeholder analysis can also be used to identify gaps in stakeholder representation.Stakeholder analysis involves asking a standard set of relevant questionsof all those targeted for participation in the project. These questionscan be directed at some of the finer information needs surrounding yourparticipatory process, such as the level of technology that should beused, the time and day of the week meetings should be scheduled, and theidentification of stakeholders who do not interact well with one another.Data for a stakeholder analysis can be collected through several avenues,including secondary information sources (e.g., websites, newspapers, publicreports), direct communication with stakeholders (e.g., interviews andattendance at stakeholder functions), and interaction with a local host who isthoroughly familiar with local social and political landscapes. Establishing arelationship with a local host who is willing to introduce the project and theproject team to the community offers the dual benefits of providing importantinformation on stakeholders and gaining community trust and support.
9Community Resilience Mapping in HawaiiParticipatory mapping was used in Hawaii to guide the development of a streammanagement plan and to integrate hazard resilience goals into the communityplanning process. The focus was on the waterhead leader system, which isa culturally rooted physical and social watershed management system. Themapping exercise not only provided an opportunity for youth and kūpuna(elders) to learn from each other and integrate intergenerational perspectivesinto the planning process, but it also helped raise public risk awareness.The participatory mapping process provided a unique opportunity to incorporatetraditional Hawaiian knowledge and practices into a socially acceptable streammanagement plan. Cultural and social acceptability were critical to the successof the plan since it had to be implemented by the local community withoutany assistance from government. For this effort, the Pacific Risk ManagementO hana worked with the Waipi o Valley Community Stream ManagementCouncil and the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).Participatory Mapping Methods Historic maps were overlaid to compare past and currentstream course ways, physical water management systems,location of past hazard events, and crop productivity. Global Positioning System (GPS) data points were collected of the physicalwaterhead system, high-risk areas, and resilience assets within the valley.Challenges Some people had difficulty orienting themselves to aerial mapsbecause the site is rural, with few recognizable landmarks. Managing expectations of the ability of the map and planning processto assist in conflict resolution and decision-making was challenging.
10TransparencyTransparency is a key element of participatory mapping and working with stakeholders.Transparent processes are those in which relevant information is widely availableto the public, particularly information that facilitates greater understanding ofdecision-making. Transparent processes can alleviate participant suspicions aboutgovernment agencies, other stakeholders, and the fairness of decisions. Alleviatingthese suspicions can be especially helpful in contentious situations. Specifically,managers or facilitators should clearly explain and openly answer questions about The structure and timeline of the participatory mapping process Ways stakeholder information or data will be used The timeframe when stakeholder input will be needed The degree to which stakeholder input will influence final decisions Capabilities and limitations of the process and technologies being usedManagers should be flexible and willing to adjust the proposed processif stakeholders voice concerns about the structure of the project.Having the Right SkillsWorking directly with stakeholders in even a simple participatory mappingexercise may require several specialized skills. After completing a stakeholderanalysis and beginning to investigate specific methods for completing theproject, consider whether the following basic competencies are needed. Mapping or other technical skills—depending on the methodsused for the project, technical expertise may be required to providebasic training to stakeholders in certain technologies. Process and meeting facilitation skills—even in non-contentious andnon-confrontational situations, having basic skills in meeting facilitationcan ensure that stakeholder interactions are positive and productive. Social science skills—some participatory mapping projects usesurveys, interviews, focus groups, or other social science methods tocollect information from stakeholders. Having a trained social scientistinvolved can ensure that the needed information is obtained.
11Developing a Mapping StrategyA wide variety of methods can be used to collect information for a participatorymapping exercise. In some cases, facilitators may bring stakeholders or representativegroups together to perform the mapping exercise. In other cases, it may be moreuseful to have stakeholders provide their data individually and come togetherto explore the responses as a group. The decision is best made according to theindividual needs of the project and the preferences of the stakeholders.The needs of a project may not be met by a single participatory mapping exerciseor by the use of a single method. For example, it may be useful to use online mapping tools with an expert stakeholder group and to integrate thosedata into a paper mapping exercise with another group of stakeholders.The technical capacity of the participants involved in the participatory mappingexercise is a critical consideration. Some users may not be familiar with maps or maybe uncomfortable or unfamiliar with some technologies. Balancing the comfort level ofparticipants with the technologies used in the mapping exercise will alleviate a host ofissues. In many cases, the project team may provide training in the use of a technologyto help stakeholders feel more comfortable with the process and the products.The mapping goals and the stakeholders involved will play a key role in the mappingprocess and how the information will be recorded and analyzed. There are four primaryconcerns for the actual mapping exercise once the team has established the project goals. How will the map be used or analyzed to make decisions? What are stakeholders going to map? What methods will stakeholders use to map things? How will the maps be used in the future?To answer these questions, it is extremely important to review the stakeholderanalysis and the goals of the participatory mapping effort mentioned in theprevious sections. The goals of the effort and the stakeholders will help determinehow best to address the next steps of the participatory mapping project.
12Conservation Planning on Edisto Island, South CarolinaThe Edisto Island Preservation Alliance is a conglomeration of conservation-mindedgroups working to preserve Edisto Island’s rural and agricultural way of life throughcommunity-driven growth management and proactive initiatives. The participatorymapping efforts contributed to the alliance’s voice in updating the county comprehensiveplan, application for a National Scenic Byway designation, and visitor education.Facilitators from the NOAA Office for Coastal Management and the ACE Basin NationalEstuarine Research Reserve assisted the alliance as it used participatory mapping toidentify key areas for preservation.Participatory Mapping Methods Participants learned how to collect nontraditional, locally significant data usinga handheld Global Positioning System (GPS). They collected GPS data on thelocations of historic churches, cemeteries, and scenic views. Participants alsoimproved existing roads data by adding commonly used names to the attributes. Research reserve staff members helped update and combine conserved landinformation into a single data file that matched legal parcel boundaries. In combination with stakeholder input, GIS software (the Habitat PriorityPlanner) was used to identify areas on Edisto Island facing the greatest threatsfrom development, and those that were most important to preserve.Challenges Facilitators were required to provide thorough explanations ofmaps, GPS units, and software used during the process to helpparticipants feel comfortable and confident in the process. Facilitators had to be able to manage expectations by clearly explainingthe limitations of the data and software used for analysis.
13How Will the Map Be Used or Analyzed to Make Decisions?Clearly, knowing the intended uses of the data being collected is critical to ensuringthat the right data are gathered. Having a clear sense of how the data will be usedand visualized will help shape the ways the data are collected. For example, if themapping effort will have policy, legal, or financial implications, the level of attentionpaid to accuracy may be higher. Further, if the data will ultimately become part ofa digital database, then it may be more important to try to collect data digitally toavoid complications involved in transferring paper sketches into a digital format.Knowing the long-term use of the maps and data will help define how the projectshould collect and store the information. Questions to consider include the following: How will the information be shared and used? How much detail is needed to address the issue? What additional data might be needed? What are the best mechanisms to convey the results sothat they can be easily understood by all parties? Will the final products be printed or electronic? Will information be presented in town meetings, forums,stakeholder groups, or formal reports?What Are Stakeholders Going to Map?From a mapping perspective, it is critical to have a clear idea about what featuresneed to be mapped and how those features will help answer the questions theproject is trying to address. In most cases, features identified in a participatorymapping effort will be represented through one of three different category types:points (e.g., a school), lines (e.g., a school bus route), or polygons (e.g., areassuch as school districts). Identifying the appropriate category type for each mapfeature will help define how that information may be represented on the map.
14With that said, choosing a category type can be tricky. The features mapped by thestakeholders will influence the questions that can be asked of the data and the futuredecisions that can be based on the maps. In some cases stakeholders may feel morecomfortable identifying areas instead of single points. For example, fishermen maynot be comfortable identifying the specific coordinates of their preferred fishingareas because they fear others will use their favorite spot. Working directly withstakeholders when determining what will be mapped will help ensure that theseconsiderations are included. Facilitators for the mapping effort can help participantsexplore ways to map the desired features while still honoring participant concerns.What Methods Will Stakeholders Use to Map Things?Once the project team and stakeholders have identified what will be mapped and thegoals of the map, the team should consider the actual process of placing the featureson the map. One of the most important aspects to this step is knowing the technicalcapacity and comfort level of the stakeholders. This information can help the teamavoid unnecessary confusion and frustration. In some cases, a project may find iteasiest to use paper maps or ones drawn literally in the sand. In other cases, where themapped data may be used for digital analysis, it may be worthwhile to explore waysto digitally collect and store the maps. Finding ways to make the mapping exercisecomfortable and efficient for the stakeholders will improve the final product.How Will the Maps Be Used in the Future?Identifying the resources available for the initial participatory mapping effort andthe long-term maintenance of the data can also shape the ways data are collected.If, for example, a community plans to sketch its data onto paper maps and storethose maps in a community center, it may not make sense to convert the maps to adigital format, especially if computer access and technical capacity are limited.When planning the participatory mapping project, for more formal map products thestakeholders should identify who will keep the maps and determine the acceptableways the maps should be used in the future. In cases where the mapping exercisemay produce a temporary map, like one drawn in the sand or in sketches on paper,the stakeholders may want to ensure their decisions are recorded in a narrative.Addressing these issues before starting the participatory mapping process helpsensure the usefulness of the effort and enhances the transparency of the project.
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