Introduction To Corrosion - Elsevier
Typeset by: CEPHA Imaging Pvt. Ltd., INDIAChapter1Introduction toCorrosion1.1 HistoricalBackground ‘Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth wheremoth and rust doth corrupt and where thieves breakthrough and steal.’(Mathew 6:14) Thenard (1819) suggested that corrosion is anelectrochemical phenomenon.Hall (1829) established that iron does not rustin the absence of oxygen.Davy (1824) proposed a method for sacrificialprotection of iron by zinc.De la Rive (1830) suggested the existence ofmicrocells on the surface of zinc.he word corrosion is as old as the earth,but it has been known by different names.Corrosion is known commonly as rust, an undesirable phenomena which destroys the luster andbeauty of objects and shortens their life. A Romanphilosopher, Pliny (AD 23–79) wrote about thedestruction of iron in his essay ‘Ferrum Corrumpitar.’ Corrosion since ancient times hasaffected not only the quality of daily lives ofpeople, but also their technical progress. Thereis a historical record of observation of corrosionby several writers, philosophers and scientists, butthere was little curiosity regarding the causes andmechanism of corrosion until Robert Boyle wrotehis ‘Mechanical Origin of Corrosiveness.’Philosophers, writers and scientists observedcorrosion and mentioned it in their writings:T [16:01 2006/5/18 CH-01.tex]The most important contributions were latermade by Faraday (1791–1867) [1] who established a quantitative relationship between chemical action and electric current. Faraday’s firstand second laws are the basis for calculation ofcorrosion rates of metals. Ideas on corrosioncontrol started to be generated at the beginning of nineteenth century. Whitney (1903)provided a scientific basis for corrosion controlbased on electrochemical observation. As earlyas in eighteenth century it was observed thatiron corrodes rapidly in dilute nitric acid butremains unattacked in concentrated nitric acid.Schönbein in 1836 showed that iron could bemade passive [2]. It was left to U. R. Evans to provide a modern understanding of the causes andcontrol of corrosion based on his classical electroPliny the elder (AD 23–79) wrote about chemical theory in 1923. Considerable progresstowards the modern understanding of corrosionspoiled iron.Herodotus (fifth century BC) suggested the was made by the contributions of Evans [3],Uhlig [4] and Fontana [5]. The above pioneersuse of tin for protection of iron.of modern corrosion have been identified withLomonosov (1743–1756).Austin (1788) noticed that neutral water their well known books in the references givenat the end of the chapter. Corrosion laboratoriesbecomes alkaline when it acts on iron.ISBN: 0750659246AHMAD: Business Research ProjectsPage: 11–8
Typeset by: CEPHA Imaging Pvt. Ltd., INDIA2 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Controlestablished in M.I.T, USA and University of (C) Corrosion is an aspect of the decay ofCambridge, UK, contributed significantly to thematerials by chemical or biological agents.growth and development of corrosion science (D) Corrosion is an extractive metallurgy inand technology as a multi disciplinary subject.reverse. For instance, iron is made fromIn recent years, corrosion science and engineerhematite by heating with carbon. Iron coring has become an integral part of engineeringrodes and reverts to rust, thus completingeducation globally.its life cycle. The hematite and rust have thesame composition (Fig. 1.1).(E) Corrosion is the deterioration of materialsas a result of reaction with its environment(Fontana).(F) Corrosion is the destructive attack of a metalby chemical or electrochemical reaction withCorrosion is a natural and costly process ofthe environment (Uhlig).destruction like earthquakes, tornados, floodsDespite different definitions, it can beand volcanic eruptions, with one major difference. Whereas we can be only a silent spectator to observed that corrosion is basically the result ofthe above processes of destruction, corrosion can interaction between materials and their environbe prevented or at least controlled. Several defi- ment. Up to the 1960s, the term corrosion wasnitions of corrosion have been given and some of restricted only to metals and their alloys and it didnot incorporate ceramics, polymers, compositesthem are reproduced below:and semiconductors in its regime. The term cor(A) Corrosion is the surface wastage that occurs rosion now encompasses all types of natural andwhen metals are exposed to reactive envi- man-made materials including biomaterials andnanomaterials, and it is not confined to metalsronments.(B) Corrosion is the result of interaction and alloys alone. The scope of corrosion is consisbetween a metal and environments which tent with the revolutionary changes in materialsdevelopment witnessed in recent years.results in its gradual destruction.1.2 DefinitionsFigure 1.1 Refining-corrosion cycle[16:01 2006/5/18 CH-01.tex]ISBN: 0750659246AHMAD: Business Research ProjectsPage: 21–8
Typeset by: CEPHA Imaging Pvt. Ltd., INDIAIntroduction to corrosion1.3 CorrosiveEnvironmentCorrosion cannot be defined without a referenceto environment. All environments are corrosiveto some degree. Following is the list of typicalcorrosive environments:(1) Air and humidity.(2) Fresh, distilled, salt and marine water.(3) Natural, urban, marine and industrialatmospheres.(4) Steam and gases, like chlorine.(5) Ammonia.(6) Hydrogen sulfide.(7) Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.(8) Fuel gases.(9) Acids.(10) Alkalies.(11) Soils. 3packaged goods, etc. with dire consequencesto the consumers.Nuclear hazards. The Chernobyl disaster isa continuing example of transport of radioactive corrosion products in water, fatal tohuman, animal and biological life.The magnitude of corrosion would dependupon the sensitivity of a particular metal oralloy to a specific environment. For instance,copper corrodes rapidly in the presence ofammonia and it is a serious problem in agricultural areas. Many historical statues madefrom bronze have been destroyed by ammoniareleased from fertilizers. Environmental conditioning offers one method of controlling corrosion, such as the use of inhibitors and oiltransmission pipelines.It may, therefore, be observed that corrosionis a potent force which destroys economy, depletesresources and causes costly and untimely failures In a study of corrosion cost conducted jointlyof plants, equipment and components.by C. C. Technologies Inc., USA [6], FederalHighway Agencies (FHWA), USA [7] andNational Association of Corrosion Engineers [8],the direct corrosion cost was estimated to bearound 276 billion US dollars, approximately3.1% of the national gross domestic product.Based on an extensive survey conducted bySome important consequences of corrosion are Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Columbus,Ohio, USA and National Institute of Standardssummarized below:and Technology (NIST), in 1975, the cost was esti Plant shutdowns. Shutdown of nuclear mated to be 82 billion US dollars, which wouldplants, process plants, power plants and have exceeded 350 billion US dollars in view ofrefineries may cause severe problems to price inflation over the last twenty-five years.Because of the long time involved in conductindustry and consumers. Loss of products, leaking containers, storage ing cost structure, it is not possible to updatetanks, water and oil transportation lines and the information every year. However, both studfuel tanks cause significant loss of product and ies show that corrosion costs are staggering andmay generate severe accidents and hazards. a figure of about 350 billion US dollars appearsIt is well known that at least 25% of water is to be a reasonable estimate for another two tothree years. At least 35% of the above amountlost by leakage. Loss of efficiency. Insulation of heat could have been saved by taking appropriate corexchanger tubings and pipeline or contributing to corrosion after public util- The term science covers theories, laws andities, whereas in the oil producing countries, explanation of phenomena confirmed by intersuch as the Arabian Gulf countries, petroleum subjective observation or experiments. For1.7 Corrosion Scienceand CorrosionEngineering[16:01 2006/5/18 CH-01.tex]ISBN: 0750659246AHMAD: Business Research ProjectsPage: 41–8
Typeset by: CEPHA Imaging Pvt. Ltd., INDIAIntroduction to corrosioninstance, the explanation of different forms ofcorrosion, rates of corrosion and mechanismof corrosion is provided by corrosion science.Corrosion science is a ‘knowing why’ of corrosion.The term engineering, contrary to science, isdirected towards an action for a particular purpose under a set of directions and rules foraction and in a well-known phrase it is ‘knowing how.’ Corrosion engineering is the application of the principles evolved from corrosionscience to minimize or prevent corrosion. Corrosion engineering involves designing of corrosionprevention schemes and implementation of specific codes and practices. Corrosion preventionmeasures, like cathodic protection, designingto prevent corrosion and coating of structuresfall within the regime of corrosion engineering.However, corrosion science and engineering gohand-in-hand and they cannot be separated: it isa permanent marriage to produce new and bettermethods of protection from time to time.5European Federation of Corrosion, Japan Societyof Corrosion Engineers and others are playingleading role in the development of corrosionengineering education. Detailed information oncorrosion education, training centers, opportunities in corrosion can be found in varioushandbooks and websites. Some sources of information are listed in the bibliography. As aconsequence of cumulative efforts of corrosionscientists and engineers, corrosion engineeringhas made quantum leaps and it is actively contributing to technological advancement rangingfrom building structures to aerospace vehicles.1.10 FunctionalAspects of CorrosionCorrosion may severely affect the followingfunctions of metals, plant and equipment:(1) Impermeability: Environmental constituents must not be allowed to enter pipes,process equipment, food containers, tanks,etc. to minimize the possibility of corrosion.(2) Mechanical strength: Corrosion should notThe subject of corrosion is inter-disciplinaryaffect the capability to withstand specifiedand it involves all basic sciences, such asloads, and its strength should not be underphysics, chemistry, biology and all disciplines ofmined by corrosion.engineering, such as civil, mechanical, electrical(3) Dimensional integrity: Maintaining dimenand metallurgical engineering.sions is critical to engineering designs andthey should not be affected by corrosion.(4) Physical properties: For efficient operation,the physical properties of plants, equipmentand materials, such as thermal conductivity and electrical properties, should not beallowed to be adversely affected by corrosion.The subject of corrosion has undergone an irre- (5) Contamination: Corrosion, if allowed tobuild up, can contaminate processing equipversible transformation from a state of isolatedment, food products, drugs and pharmaand obscurity to a recognized discipline of engiceutical products and endanger health andneering. From the three universities in USAenvironmental safety.which offered courses in corrosion in 1946, corrosion courses are now offered by almost all (6) Damage to equipment: Equipment adjacentto one which has suffered corrosion failure,major technical universities and institutions inmay be damaged.USA, UK, Europe, South-East Asia, Africa andJapan. Corrosion is now considered as an essenRealizing that corrosion effectively blockstial component of design. Learned societies likeNational Association of Corrosion Engineers, or impairs the functions of metals, plants1.8 Inter-disciplinaryNature of Corrosion1.9 CorrosionEducation[16:01 2006/5/18 CH-01.tex]ISBN: 0750659246AHMAD: Business Research ProjectsPage: 51–8
Typeset by: CEPHA Imaging Pvt. Ltd., INDIA6 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Controland equipment, appropriate measures mustbe adopted to minimize loss or efficiency offunction.the product image which is a valuable assetto a corporation. Surface finishing processes,such as electroplating, anodizing, mechanical polishing, electro polishing, painting,coating, etching and texturing all lead to thedual purpose of enhancement of aesthetic1.10.1 Health, Safety,value and surface integrity of the product.Environmental and(5) Product life: Corrosion seriously shortensthe predicted design life, a time span afterProduct Lifewhich replacement is anticipated. Cars have,in general, a design life of twelve years, butThese can involve the following:several brands survive much longer. A DC-3(1) Safety: Sudden failure can cause exploaircraft has a design life of twenty years butsions and fire, release of toxic products andafter sixty years they are still flying. Thecollapse of structures. Several incidents of fireEiffel Tower had a design life of two yearshave been reported due to corrosion causingonly, and even after one hundred years it isleakage of gas and oil pipelines. Corrosionstill a grand symbol of Paris. The reason foradversely affects the structural integrity oftheir survival is that the engineers made usecomponents and makes them susceptibleof imaginative designs, environmental resisto failure and accident. More deaths aretant materials and induction of corrosioncaused by accidents in old cars because offree maintenance measures. Distinguishedthe weakening of components by corrosionand evocative designs always survive whereasdamage. Corrosion has also been a significantdesigns of a transitory nature deterioratefactor in several accidents involving civil andto extinction with time. Design life is amilitary aircraft and other transportationprocess of imagination, material selectionvehicles. Corrosion failure involving bridges,and corrosion-free maintenance.ships, airports, stadiums are too numerous (6) Restoration of corroded objects: Objects ofto be mentioned in detail in this chapteroutstanding significance to natural historyand recorded in the catalog of engineeringneed to be preserved. Many historical strucdisasters [11].tures have been lost through the ravages of(2) Health: Adverse effects on health may becorrosion. One recent example is the call forcaused by corroding structures, such as ahelp to restore the revolutionary iron-hulledplumbing system affecting the quality ofsteamships Great Britain built in 1843. It haswater and escaping of products into thebeen described as mother of all modern ships,environment from the corroded structures.measuring 3000 feet in length and weighing(3) Depletion of resources: Corrosion puts1930 tons. A plea for 100 000 has been madea heavy constraint on natural resourcesfor its restoration.of a country because of their wastage bycorrosion. The process of depletion outweighs the discovery of new resources whichmay lead to a future metal crisis similar to thepast oil shortage.(4) Appearance and cleanliness: Whereas anesthetics numb the senses, aesthetics arouseinterest, stimulate and appeal to the senses, (1) Materials are precious resources of a country.particularly the sense of beauty. A productOur material resources of iron, aluminum,designed to function properly must havecopper, chromium, manganese, titanium,an aesthetic appeal. Corrosion behaves likeetc. are dwindling fast. Some day therea beast to a beauty. It destroys the aeswill be an acute shortage of these materials.thetic appeal of the product and damagesAn impending metal crisis does not seem1.11 Five Good Reasonsto Study Corrosion[16:01 2006/5/18 CH-01.tex]ISBN: 0750659246AHMAD: Business Research ProjectsPage: 61–8
Typeset by: CEPHA Imaging Pvt. Ltd., INDIAIntroduction to corrosion(2)(3)7anywhere to be a remote possibility but a 3. Which is the most common cause of correality. There is bound to be a metal crisisrosion damage, corrosion fatigue, stressand we are getting the signals. To preservecorrosion cracking or pitting corrosion?these valuable resources, we need to under- 4. Describe with an example how corstand how these resources are destroyed byroded structures can lead to environmencorrosion and how they must be preserved bytal pollution.applying corrosion protection technology.5. Does corrosion affect humans? If so,Engineering knowledge is incompleteexplain how.without an understanding of corrosion. 6. Describe two engineering disasters in whichAeroplanes, ships, automobiles and othercorrosion played a leading role.transport carriers cannot be designed with- 7. State two important corrosion websites.out any recourse to the corrosion behavior of 8. How can corroded structures be injurious tomaterials used in these structures.human health?Several engineering disasters, such as crash- 9. Name three cities in South-East Asia and theing of civil and military aircraft, naval andMiddle East which have the most corrosivepassenger ships, explosion of oil pipelinesenvironment.and oil storage tanks, collapse of bridges and 10. What is the best way to minimize the corrodecks and failure of drilling platforms andsion of defense equipment during storage?tanker trucks have been witnessed in recent 11. What is the relationship between depletion ofyears. Corrosion has been a very importantnatural resources and corrosion?factor in these disasters. Applying the knowledge of corrosion protection can minimizesuch disasters. In USA, two million milesof pipe need to be corrosion-protected forsafety.The designing of artificial implants for the [1] Walsh, F. (1991). Faraday and his laws of electrolysis. Bulletin of Electrochem, 7, 11, 481–489.human body requires a complete under[2] Schönbein, C. (1936). Pogg. Ann., 37, 390.standing of the corrosion science and [3] Evans, U.R. (1972). An Introduction to Metallicengineering. Surgical implants must beCorrosion, 2nd ed. London: Arnold.very corrosion-resistant because of corrosive [4] Uhlig, H.H. (1985). Corrosion and CorrosionControl, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley andnature of human blood.Sons.Corrosion is a threat to the environment. For[5] Fontana, M.G. (1986). Corrosion Engineerinstance, water can become contaminateding, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Bookby corrosion products and unsuitable forCompany.consumption. Corrosion prevention is inte- [6] C.C. Technologies Laboratories, Inc. (2001).Cost of corrosion and prevention strategies ingral to stop contamination of air, water andthe United States, Ohio: Dublin, USA.soil. The American Water Works Association[7] Federal Highway Administration (FHWA),needs US 325 billion in the next twenty yearsOffice of the Infrastructure and Developmentto upgrade the water distribution system.(2001). Report FHWA-RD-01-156.References(4)(5)[8]National Association of Corrosion Engineers(NACE) (2002). Materials Performance, SpecialIssue, Houston, Texas, USA, July. Jointly withC. C. Technologies and FHWA.[9] Ahmad, Z. (1996). Corrosion phenomena incoastal area of Arabian Gulf. British CorrosionJournal, 31, (2), 191–197.[10] Rashid-uz-Zafar, S., Al-Sulaiman, G.J. andConceptual QuestionsAl-Gahtani, A.S. (1992). Symp. Corrosion andthe Control, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, May, 110.1. Explain how corrosion can be considered as [11] Tullmin, M.A.A., Roberge, P.R., Grenier, L. andextractive metallurgy in reverse.Little, M.A. (1990). Canadian Aeronautics andSpace Journal, 42, (2), 272–275.2. List five important consequences of corrosion.Questions[16:01 2006/5/18 CH-01.tex]ISBN: 0750659246AHMAD: Business Research ProjectsPage: 71–8
Typeset by: CEPHA Imaging Pvt. Ltd., INDIA8 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion ControlHoar, T.P. (1971). Report of the Committee onCorrosion and Protection, London: HMSO.[13] Latanisian, R.M., Leslie, G.G., McBrine, N.J.,Eselman, T. et al. (1999). Application of practicalageing management concepts to corrosion engineering, Keynote Address. 14th ICC, Capetown,South Africa, 26 Sep–10 Oct.WebsitesGeneral ReferencesSoftware[12][14] Hackerman, N. (1993). A view of the historyof corrosion and its control. In: Gundry,R. D. ed. Corrosion 93 Planery and KeynoteLectures, Texas: NACE, Houston, 1–5.Au: Please provide [15] Pliny, (1938). Natural History of the World.London: Heinemann.the initials for the[16]Hoare, T.P. (1971). Report of the CommitReference No: [15].tee on Corrosion and Protection. London:HMSO.[17] Uhlig, H.H. (1949). Chemical and Engineering News, 97, 2764.[18] N. B. S. (1978). Corrosion in United States,Standard Special Publication.[19] Bennett, L.H. (1978). Economic Effects ofMetallic Corrosion in USA, Special Publication 511-1, Washington, D.C.[16:01 2006/5/18 CH-01.tex]ISBN: w.learncorrosion.comwww.nace.orgwww.iom3.org[24] NACE: Basic Corrosion (National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston,Texas), Course on CD-Rom, 2002.[25] Corrosion Survey Data Base (COR.SUR),access via NACE website, NACE, Houston,Texas, 2003.[26] Rover Electronic Data Books , WilliamAndrew, Inc., New York, USA, 2002.[27] Peabody, A.W. Control of Pipeline Corrosion, 2nd Edition, Ed. R. Bianchette, NACE,Houston, Texas, 2003.[28] Corrosion Damage: A Practical Approach,NACE, Houston, Texas, 2003.AHMAD: Business Research ProjectsPage: 81–8
2 Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control established in M.I.T, USA and University of Cambridge, UK, contributed significantly to the growth and development of corrosion science and technology as a multi disciplinary subject. In recent years, corrosion science and engineer-ing ha
About Corrosion 4 Parts of a Corrosion Cell Anode (location where corrosion takes place) o Oxidation Half-Reaction Cathode (no corrosion) o Reduction Half-Reaction Electrolyte (Soil, Water, Moisture, etc.) Electrical Connection between anode and cathode (wire, metal wall, etc.) Electrochemical corrosion can be
1.05 Basic Concepts of Corrosion L. L. Shreir{This article is a revision of the Third Edition article 1.1 by L. L. Shreir, volume 1, pp 1:3-1:15, 2010 Elsevier B.V. 1.05.1 Introduction 89 1.05.2 Definitions of Corrosion 90 1.05.3 Methods of Approach to Corrosion Phenomena 91
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Technical Data Sheet Online Only 00816-0100-3045, Rev CA Corrosion and Its Effects May 2003 2 CORROSION BASICS Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical means. The most generic form of corrosion is galvanic corrosion. A combination of a cathode, an anode
1 Corrosion Overview: Internal Corrosion, External Corrosion and Cathodic Protection 2016 AGA/SPE Underground Storage Operators Workshop April 5, 2016
PURPOSE: The purpose of this experiment is to illustrate the principles and practical aspects of corrosion and corrosion prevention. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: By the end of this experiment, . corrosion-o2-production-FV.pdf Corrosion Prevention. There are a number of methods used to stop or slow down the spontaneous corrosion of iron. Barrier
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