RESEARCH REPORT 2021 Poverty Projections
FROM SAFETY NET TO SOLID GROUNDRES EARCH RE PORT2021 Poverty ProjectionsAssessing the Impact of Benefits and Stimulus MeasuresLaura WheatonJuly 2021Linda GiannarelliIlham Dehry
ABO UT THE U RB AN INS TI TU TEThe nonprofit Urban Institute is a leading research organization dedicated to developing evidence-based insightsthat improve people’s lives and strengthen communities. For 50 years, Urban has been the trusted source forrigorous analysis of complex social and economic issues; strategic advice to policymakers, philanthropists, andpractitioners; and new, promising ideas that expand opportunities for all. Our work inspires effective decisionsthat advance fairness and enhance the well-being of people and places.Copyright July 2021. Urban Institute. Permission is granted for reproduction of this file, with attribution to theUrban Institute. Cover image by Tim Meko.
ContentsAcknowledgmentsiv2021 Poverty Projections: Assessing the Impact of Benefits and Stimulus Measures12021 Poverty Projections3COVID Relief Policies Included in the Estimates10Methods for Creating the Estimates12Effect of Benefits and COVID Policies on Poverty14Why Do Antipoverty Effects Vary?17Program Effects in 2018 and 202118Individual Program Effects25Conclusions26Appendix: Additional Tables29Notes34References39About the Authors40Statement of Independence41
AcknowledgmentsThis report was funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. The views expressed do notnecessarily reflect the views of the Foundation.The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the Robert WoodJohnson Foundation or to the Urban Institute, its trustees, or its funders. Funders do not determineresearch findings or the insights and recommendations of Urban experts. Further information on theUrban Institute’s funding principles is available at urban.org/fundingprinciples.The authors gratefully acknowledge the large team that designed and implemented the manypolicy simulations underlying these estimates, including Sarah Minton, Joyce Morton, Kelly Dwyer,Paul Johnson, Sarah Knowles, Danielle Kwon, Elaine Maag, Katie Shantz, Silke Taylor, and KevinWerner. We also owe thanks to Jeffrey Passel for developing the 2021 population weightadjustments; to Janet Holtzblatt, Jack Smalligan, and Wayne Vroman for advising on policy changes;to staff of the California Legislative Analyst’s Office and the Public Policy Institute of California forinformation on California policies; to Ed Bolen and Brynne Keith-Jennings at the Center on Budgetand Policy Priorities for information about state Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program waivers,and to Gregory Acs, Sarah Minton, and Elaine Waxman for support in developing the assumptions andfor their comments on earlier drafts.ivACKNOWLEDGMENTS
2021 Poverty Projections: Assessingthe Impact of Benefits and StimulusMeasuresAt the midpoint of 2021, understanding the extent of need among America’s families presents uniquechallenges. On the one hand, the economy is improving, employment is increasing, two additionalrounds of stimulus checks have been distributed, advance child tax credits are about to begin, andmany pandemic-related benefits remain in place. Fewer people than in December 2020 report thatthey sometimes or often do not have enough to eat or that they are behind in their rent.1 On the otherhand, the number of jobs in the US economy in June 2021 was 6 million lower than in December 2019(before the COVID-19 pandemic hit the US),2 no new rounds of stimulus checks are planned,enhanced unemployment benefits are scheduled to end on September 6 (and earlier in many states), atemporary increase in the maximum Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefit willend in September, and SNAP emergency allotments are ceasing in some states.We previously projected that the American Rescue Plan, enacted in March 2021, would reducethe 2021 annual poverty rate from 13.7 to 8.7 percent (Wheaton et al. 2021). We now project a 2021poverty rate of 7.7 percent. The revised projection accounts for improvements in the economy,incorporates updated state-level information on pandemic-related policies, and improves the methodfor weighting the data to reflect 2021. Both the earlier poverty projections and these updatedprojections use the Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM), which allows a more comprehensiveassessment of families’ economic well-being than the official poverty measure. The projections,developed using the Urban Institute’s Analysis of Transfers, Taxes, and Income Security (ATTIS) model,take into account expected levels of employment and income in 2021, safety-net benefits, taxes andtax credits, state “back to work” bonuses, and federal and state stimulus checks. The projections arean annual measure and do not reflect the increased hardship that some families may experiencetoward the end of 2021 once the stimulus checks have been spent, federal pandemic unemploymentbenefits end, and some pandemic-related SNAP benefit increases are scaled back.We present the updated 2021 projections by key characteristics, examine how much governmentbenefits reduce the poverty rate, and consider reasons why some subgroups of people may be morelikely than others to have their incomes raised above the poverty threshold by government benefits.The 2021 poverty projections include the following:
Using the SPM, the annual poverty rate projection for 2021, 7.7 percent, is well below the rate of 13.9 percent that we estimate for 2018 with the same methods.The projected percentage of people in deep poverty in 2021 (that is, with family income less than half the poverty threshold) is 2.6 percent, compared with 4.2 percent in 2018.The projected poverty rates are lowest for children (5.6 percent), higher for adults ages 18 to 64 (8.1 percent), and highest for people age 65 and older (9.2 percent).The 2021 poverty rate is projected to be higher for Black, non-Hispanic people (9.2 percent), Hispanic people (11.8 percent), and non-Hispanic Asian American and Pacific Islanders, orAAPIs (10.8 percent), than for white, non-Hispanic people (5.8 percent).3Projected poverty rates vary across the states. For example, the projected 2021 child poverty rate ranges from 1.9 percent in Maine to 8.8 percent in Delaware and Florida.Considering the impact of government benefits on the poverty rate, our key findings are as follows:We project that without any benefits from unemployment insurance (UI), government means- tested programs (either standard benefits or benefits increased because of the pandemic),pandemic-related stimulus payments or state payments, or the advance child tax credit, the2021 poverty rate would be 23.1 percent. The combined effect of all the benefits (UI, meanstested benefits, refundable tax credits, federal stimulus checks, the advance child tax credit,and state payments) reduces that rate 67 percent to 7.7 percent, keeping nearly 50 millionAmericans out of poverty in 2021.The federal stimulus checks have a larger antipoverty impact than any of the other programs; if all other programs were in place but the stimulus checks had not been paid, we project 12.4million more people would be in poverty in 2021. SNAP alone keeps 7.9 million people out ofpoverty in 2021, and UI benefits lower the number in poverty by 6.7 million (assuming allother programs are in place).Considering results by age group, the combined benefits have the largest impact on children, reducing their projected 2021 poverty rate 81 percent relative to what it would be withoutany benefits (from 30.1 percent to 5.6 percent).Considering results by race and ethnicity, the benefits have the largest impact on Black non- Hispanic people (reducing their 2021 projected poverty rate 74 percent) and the smallestimpact on AAPIs (reducing their 2021 projected poverty rate 54 percent). The smaller22021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS
reduction in poverty for AAPIs is likely because of a combination of factors related togeographic location and other demographic characteristics. Focusing on UI benefits and means-tested benefits (including their pandemic expansions butomitting the pandemic-related stimulus checks, state payments, and advance child tax credits)these programs reduced the projected 2021 poverty rate from 23.1 percent to 12.6 percent.These programs also had a large impact before the pandemic, but it was not as large asprojected for 2021. We estimate that UI benefits and means-tested benefits reduced the2018 poverty rate from 20.3 percent to 13.9 percent.2021 Poverty ProjectionsOur poverty projections use an expanded poverty measure that considers not only a family’s cashincome but also their tax payments, child care and other work-related expenses, medical out-ofpocket expenses, tax credits, in-kind benefits such as housing subsidies and nutrition help, andstimulus checks (Fox 2020). This metric is the Supplemental Poverty Measure, or SPM. The SPM notonly uses a broader definition of income than the official poverty measure, it also uses a differentthreshold (or “poverty line”) to determine if a family is in poverty. The SPM uses a poverty thresholdthat reflects actual spending on food, clothing, shelter, and utilities plus a small amount for otherspending, at between the 30th to 36th percentile of the spending distribution based on data forfamilies with two children. The SPM threshold is adjusted by the number of adults and children in thefamily and whether the family rents their home, owns without a mortgage, or owns with a mortgage,The threshold is further adjusted to reflect differences in median rent for two-bedroom units acrossmajor metropolitan areas and for the remaining grouped metropolitan areas and nonmetropolitanareas within each state.To develop the 2021 projected thresholds, we begin with the 2019 SPM thresholds developed bythe Bureau of Labor Statistics for renters and for owners with and without a mortgage, adjust forprojected inflation between 2019 and 2021, apply the Census Bureau’s adjustments for family size andnumber of children, and apply the geographic adjustments developed by the Census Bureau.4 We thenassign the thresholds to families in the projected 2021 data. When averaged nationally, the projectedthreshold is 13,667 for a one-person family, 20,669 for a family with one adult and one child, and 30,232 for a family with two adults and two children. The projected thresholds for a family with twoadults and two children range from a low of 21,001 for a family that lives in a nonmetropolitan area ofArkansas and owns their home without a mortgage to a high of 47,134 for a family that lives in the SanJose–Sunnyvale–Santa Clara, California, metropolitan area and has a mortgage.2021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS3
Overall, we project that 7.7 percent of people will have family resources below the SPM thresholdin 2021 (figure 1). The projected poverty rates are lowest for children (5.6 percent) and highest forpeople age 65 and older (9.2 percent). The 2021 projected poverty rate is substantially lower than the13.9 percent poverty rate for 2018 (table A.1), reflecting the effect of stimulus checks and othergovernment benefits in counteracting the effects of the pandemic recession.5FIGURE 1Projected 2021 SPM Poverty Rates by AgePercentageTotalUnder 187.75.618 to 648.165 or older9.2Source: Urban Institute projections as of July 2021, created by the ATTIS model applied to the 2018 American CommunitySurvey data with employment, population, and incomes projected to 2021.Note: ATTIS Analysis of Transfers, Taxes, and Income Security Model; SPM Supplemental Poverty Measure. Poverty ismeasured with the SPM; we generally follow US Census Bureau methods for applying the SPM to American Community Surveydata but use benefits and taxes simulated by ATTIS.As shown in figure 2, the projected percentage of white, non-Hispanic people in poverty (5.8percent) is lower than for Black, non-Hispanic people (9.2 percent), AAPIs (10.8 percent), and Hispanicpeople (11.8 percent). Black and Hispanic people were more likely than white, non-Hispanic people tolose their jobs during the pandemic.6 The higher projected poverty rates of Black and Hispanic peoplerelative to white non-Hispanic people also reflect historical disparities among these groups.7 Althoughthe AAPI poverty rate is typically lower than the Black non-Hispanic poverty rate, we project thatAAPIs will be less likely than people in other groups to be removed from poverty by governmentbenefits in 2021. 8 As a result, the projected 2021 AAPI poverty rate is slightly higher than for Blacknon-Hispanic people. However, both groups have projected poverty rates well below the 2018 levelsof 16.6 percent for AAPIs and 19.2 percent for Black non-Hispanic people.People who live in a household containing a person who is projected to be unemployed for atleast half the year have a higher projected poverty rate (11.6 percent) than those who live in ahousehold projected to have less unemployment or no unemployment (7.0 percent; figure 3).42021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS
FIGURE 2Projected 2021 SPM Poverty Rates by Race and EthnicityPercentageTotalWhite, non-Hispanic7.75.8Black, non-Hispanic9.2Hispanic11.8AAPI, non-Hispanic10.8Source: Urban Institute projections as of July 2021, created by the ATTIS model applied to the 2018 American CommunitySurvey data with employment, population, and incomes projected to 2021.Note: AAPI Asian American or Pacific Islander; ATTIS Analysis of Transfers, Taxes, and Income Security Model; SPM Supplemental Poverty Measure. Poverty is measured with the SPM; we generally follow US Census Bureau methods forapplying the SPM to American Community Survey data but use benefits and taxes simulated by ATTIS.FIGURE 3Projected 2021 SPM Poverty Rates by Whether Someone in the Household is Unemployed for atLeast Six Months of 2021PercentageTotal7.7YesNo11.67.0Source: Urban Institute projections as of July 2021, created by the ATTIS model applied to the 2018 American CommunitySurvey data with employment, population, and incomes projected to 2021.Note: ATTIS Analysis of Transfers, Taxes, and Income Security Model; SPM Supplemental Poverty Measure. Poverty ismeasured with the SPM; we generally follow US Census Bureau methods for applying the SPM to American Community Surveydata but use benefits and taxes simulated by ATTIS. People are counted as unemployed for six months or more if they appearedto be not working and looking for work for at least six months in the original survey data or if they were identified as losing theirjob due to the recession and being unemployed for at least six months in 2021. In official unemployment statistics, some peoplewho lost their jobs could be classified as discouraged workers or no longer in the labor force.2021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS5
We also project the numbers of people at different points in the income distribution relative tothe SPM poverty threshold. About a third of the people with resources below the SPM povertythreshold (2.6 percent of all people) are projected to be in “deep poverty,” meaning that their familyresources are less than half of the SPM poverty threshold (table 1). This is lower than in 2018, when4.2 percent of people were in deep poverty (table A.1). We project that children will be less likely tobe in deep poverty in 2021 (1.1 percent) than adults (3 percent for adults ages 18 to 64 and age 65and above). Among the four racial and ethnic groups shown, white, non-Hispanic people have thelowest projected deep poverty rate (2.3 percent) and AAPIs have the highest rate (4.3 percent). Peopleliving in a household where someone is unemployed for six months or more of the year have a higherdeep poverty rate (3.8 percent) than those in households with less unemployment or nounemployment (2.4 percent).TABLE 1Projected 2021 SPM Poverty RatesTotalAgeUnder 1818 to 6465 or olderRace and ethnicityWhite, non-HispanicBlack, non-HispanicHispanicAAPI, non-HispanicIn household withsomeone unemployed 6or more months in 2021?aYesNoPercent with familyresources below 100% ofSPM poverty level7.7%Percent with familyresources below 50% ofSPM poverty level (deeppoverty)2.6%Percent with familyresources below 200% ofSPM poverty .0%11.6%7.0%3.8%2.4%51.0%33.9%Source: Urban Institute projections as of July 2021, created by the ATTIS model applied to a version of the 2018 AmericanCommunity Survey data with employment, population, and incomes projected to 2021.Notes: AAPI Asian American or Pacific Islander; ATTIS Analysis of Transfers, Taxes, and Income Security Model; SPM Supplemental Poverty Measure. Poverty is measured with the SPM; we generally follow US Census Bureau methods forapplying the SPM to American Community Survey data but use benefits and taxes simulated by ATTIS.aPeople who lost jobs due to the pandemic are counted as looking for work; in official unemployment statistics, some may beclassified as discouraged workers or as no longer in the labor force.We project that over a third of the population (36.5 percent) will have low family income, meaningfamily resources below twice the SPM poverty threshold. This is also lower than in 2018, when 43.4percent of the population had low family income. We project that a higher share of children will havelow family income in 2021 (40.6 percent) than will adults ages 18 to 64 (34.9 percent) and adults age62021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS
65 and older (37.1 percent). Among the four groups shown, white, non-Hispanic people are projectedto be the least likely to have low family income (27.3 percent) and Hispanic people are projected to bethe most likely to have low family income (55.6 percent). Among non-Hispanic Black people, theprojected percentage with low family income (50.7 percent) is slightly lower than projected forHispanic people. The share of AAPIs projected to have low family income (37.0 percent) is higher thanthe share of white non-Hispanic people but lower than the share of Black non-Hispanic and Hispanicpeople. Over half (51.0 percent) of people in a household where someone is projected to beunemployed for six or more months of the year are projected to have low family income, comparedwith 33.9 percent of people in households with less unemployment or no unemployment.Across the states, the projected poverty rate ranges from a low of 4.9 percent in Minnesota to ahigh of 10.9 percent in Florida (table 2). The projected share of the population below 200 percent ofthe poverty threshold ranges from 25.5 percent in North Dakota to 43.9 percent in Florida. Theprojected child poverty rate ranges from 1.9 percent in Maine to 8.8 percent in Delaware and Florida(table 3). North Dakota has the lowest share of children below 200 percent of the poverty threshold(24.0 percent) and Florida has the highest (50.2 percent). The rankings by state reflect prepandemicpatterns but with some deviation. For example, Minnesota had the lowest poverty rate in 2018 andFlorida had the third highest (table A.2). However, Illinois had a higher poverty rate than 26 otherstates in 2018 (12.1 percent) but has a projected rate higher than just 9 states in 2021 (6 percent).Other factors affecting the state-level poverty rates include the degree of job loss caused by thepandemic recession, how many jobs are regained during 2021, state policy choices, and how muchstate residents in families with income below the poverty threshold gained from various benefits.TABLE 2Projected 2021 SPM Poverty Rates by loradoConnecticutDelawareDist. of ColumbiaFloridaGeorgiaPercent with familyresources below 100% ofSPM poverty 7.8%2021 POVERTY PROJECTIONSPercent with familyresources below 50% ofSPM poverty level (deep 5%2.6%Percent with familyresources below 200% ofSPM poverty 37.1%43.9%38.4%7
issippiMissouriMontanaNebraskaNevadaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNorth CarolinaNorth DakotaOhioOklahomaOregonPennsylvaniaRhode IslandSouth CarolinaSouth est VirginiaWisconsinWyomingPercent with familyresources below 100% ofSPM poverty .7%7.1%5.4%7.5%Percent with familyresources below 50% ofSPM poverty level (deep 7%2.1%2.9%1.8%3.9%Percent with familyresources below 200% ofSPM poverty 29.4%Source: Urban Institute projections as of July 2021, created by the ATTIS model applied to the 2018 American CommunitySurvey data with employment, population, and incomes projected to 2021.Notes: ATTIS Analysis of Transfers, Taxes, and Income Security Model; SPM Supplemental Poverty Measure. Poverty ismeasured with the SPM; we generally follow US Census Bureau methods for applying the SPM to American Community Surveydata but use benefits and taxes simulated by ATTIS.82021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS
TABLE 3Projected 2021 SPM Poverty Rates by State, People Less than 18 Years radoConnecticutDelawareDist. of kaNevadaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNorth CarolinaNorth DakotaOhioOklahomaOregonPennsylvaniaRhode IslandSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaTennesseePercent with familyresources below 100% ofSPM poverty .6%4.4%4.0%3.5%4.6%5.8%5.0%6.1%2021 POVERTY PROJECTIONSPercent with familyresources below 50% ofSPM poverty level .2%1.0%0.7%0.9%0.8%0.5%1.2%1.3%0.9%1.6%Percent with familyresources below 200% ofSPM poverty 33.7%36.3%42.1%32.5%41.4%9
TexasUtahVermontVirginiaWashingtonWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingPercent with familyresources below 100% ofSPM poverty level8.0%3.4%2.6%5.4%3.2%5.3%3.4%4.7%Percent with familyresources below 50% ofSPM poverty level nt with familyresources below 200% ofSPM poverty e: Urban Institute projections as of July 2021, created by the ATTIS model applied to the 2018 American CommunitySurvey data with employment, population, and incomes projected to 2021.Note: ATTIS Analysis of Transfers, Taxes, and Income Security Model; SPM Supplemental Poverty Measure. Poverty ismeasured with the SPM; we generally follow US Census Bureau methods for applying the SPM to American Community Surveydata but use benefits and taxes simulated by ATTIS.COVID Relief Policies Included in the EstimatesThe Families First Coronavirus Response Act and CARES Act provided substantial relief to Americansin 2020 and kept a projected 10.3 million people out of poverty (Giannarelli, Wheaton, and Acs2020).9 Additional pandemic-relief legislation was enacted through the Coronavirus Response andRelief Supplemental Appropriations Act in December 2020 and in the American Rescue Plan in March2021.10 We model the following key elements of the 2020 and 2021 legislation that directly impactfamilies’ economic resources during 2021:11 UI benefits: Before the passage of the December bill, many unemployed people were set toexhaust their benefits at the end of 2020. The December legislation provided 11 additionalweeks of benefits and added 300 a week to regular state benefit amounts through themiddle of March 2021. The American Rescue Plan added another 25 weeks of benefits(almost six months), including the additional 300 a week, from mid-March throughSeptember 6, 2021.12 The American Rescue Plan also extended the special pandemic UIprogram for people who do not usually qualify for UI (self-employed and gig workers) from itsprevious expiration date in March to September 6. However, about half of the states haveopted to end participation in the federal pandemic UI enhancements before September, andthose policy differences are included in the model.13 As in our previous analysis, we assumethat not all unemployed people receive UI even if they appear eligible for it. The probabilitiesof UI participation vary across states based in part on administrative data on UI receipt in the102021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS
first quarter of 2021; we also assume a lower rate of receipt among self-employed peoplethan among wage earners.14 SNAP (formerly known as “food stamps”) benefits: The December 2020 legislation increasedthe maximum monthly SNAP benefit 15 percent through June 30, 2021. The AmericanRescue Plan extended the period for increased SNAP benefits by three months, to September30, 2021. We also model provisions of the Families First Coronavirus Response Act of 2020that temporarily suspended the time limit for able-bodied adults without children who do notmeet work requirements and that allow states to request emergency allotments that provideall SNAP participants with the maximum benefit for their household size. We model a furtherexpansion of the emergency allotment beginning in April 2021 that guarantees that all SNAPhouseholds receive at least 95 more than the benefit for which they would otherwisequalify. Our projections assume that emergency allotments continue through the end of 2021,except in the five states that have announced an earlier end date.15 Economic impact payments (stimulus checks): We model the second stimulus check, enactedby December 2020 legislation, and the third stimulus check, enacted by the American RescuePlan.The December 2020 legislation made most adults eligible for a one-time payment of 600( 1,200 for a married couple), with an additional 600 for each dependent child under age 17.The payments begin to phase out at income levels of 75,000 for single filers, 112,500 forhead-of-household filers (such as single parents with children), and 150,000 for marriedcouples. We assume that most but not all people eligible for the payments receive them.16 Wealso model the December legislation’s extension of payments to certain families with mixedimmigration status who were ineligible for the first round of stimulus checks delivered in2020. We model these families as receiving the new checks as well as receiving the first roundof checks retroactively.17The American Rescue Plan provided a one-time payment of 1,400 ( 2,800 for marriedcouples), with an additional 1,400 for each dependent. Unlike previous legislation, thislegislation allowed dependents of any age to be eligible for the rebate, not just children underage 17. The payments begin to phase out at income levels of 75,000 for single filers, 112,500 for head-of-household filers, and 150,000 for married couples. As with the secondstimulus check, we assume that most but not all people eligible for the payments receive them. Child tax credit: The American Rescue Plan makes several changes to the child tax credit fortax year 2021. It makes the credit fully refundable, increases the amount to 3,600 per child2021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS11
under age 6 and 3,000 per child age 6 and older, allows the credit to be taken on behalf of a17-year-old (the prior maximum age was 16), and provides for monthly advance payments ofthe credit beginning in July. The increased amount of the credit (the additional 1,000 or 1,600 per child above the current-law amount of 2,000) begins to phase out at incomelevels of 75,000 for single filers, 112,500 for head-of-household filers, and 150,000 formarried couples. Half of the credit would be issued in advance payments beginning in July2021; the remaining credit would be delivered in 2022. For this analysis, we model only theamount that would be paid in 2021. We assume that most people eligible for the increasedchild tax credit receive it.18 Other benefit increases: The simulation incorporates the increased funding for the LowIncome Home Energy Assistance Program that was included in the American Rescue Plan,which we assume will increase the number of households with benefits during 2021.19 Thesimulation also includes the four-month increase in the cash-value voucher available tochildren and woman receiving benefits from the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program forWomen, Infants and Children.20We do not estimate the effects of the American Rescue Plan’s increases to the earned income taxcredit and to the child and dependent care tax credit, because these benefits would not be deliveredin advance and so are unlikely to affect poverty levels in 2021.21In addition to including federally funded pandemic-relief benefits, our estimates also includepandemic-related policies instituted by some states.22 We include 2021 pandemic-relief payments(state-level “stimulus checks”) in six states.23 We also model “back to work” bonuses that are beingpaid in seven states to previously unemployed people w
2 2021 POVERTY PROJECTIONS Using the SPM, the annual poverty rate projection for 2021, 7.7 percent, is well below the rate of 13.9 percent that we estimate for 2018 with the same methods. The projected percentage of people in deep poverty in 2021 (that is, with family income less than half the poverty threshold) is 2.6 percent, compared with 4.2 percent in 2018.
Table 34: Projections of the total population, 2012-2032 according to the high projections scenario . 100 Table 35: Projections of the total population, 2012-2032 according to the medium projections scenario . 101 Table 36: Projections of the total population, 2012-2032 according to the low projections scenario 103
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the properties of three measures of poverty: the official U.S. poverty rate; the new Supplemental Poverty Measure first released by the U.S. Census Bureau in fall 2011; and a consumption-based measure of poverty. We will focus on two fundamental goals of these measures: to identify the most disadvantaged and to assess changes
(ANSI) A300 standards of limitation on the amount of meristematic tissue (number of buds) removed during any one annual cycle (in general, removing no more than 25% on a young tree). The third circle is the top circle – the reason the other circles exist. We grow and maintain trees for aesthetic and functional values, and pruning properly for structure and biological health helps us achieve .
