Citizens’ Attitude Toward’s Local Government And Citizen’s .
Journal of American Science2010;6(11)Citizens’ Attitude toward’s Local Government and Citizen’sParticipation in Local GovernmentSeyed Hamid MohammadiDepartment of Social and Development SciencesFaculty of Human Ecology, Putra University, MalaysiaTel: 60-17-2118806 E-mail: hmd mohamadi@yahoo.comSharifah NorazizanDepartment of Social and Development SciencesFaculty of Human Ecology, Putra University, MalaysiaE-mail: sharifah@putra.upm.edu.myNobaya AhmadDepartment of Social and Development SciencesFaculty of Human Ecology, Putra University, MalaysiaE-mail: nobaya@putra.upm.edu.myAbstract: The purpose of this paper is to describe the citizen‘s attitude toward local government and its relationshipwith level of participation. Participation in local government issues, requires a favorable attitude towards localgovernment, councilors and councils‘ performance in terms of efficiency. The paper is based on the study ofcitizens' attitude towards local government, which was carried out in Torbat Hedarieh city, Iran. The analysis of datauses Pearson correlation to determine the relationship between variables involved. The findings revealed that twolevel of ladder participation (Tokenism and Citizen-power) have positive and significant relationship with attitude,while Non-participation level of ladder participation has negatively significant relationship with attitude. Thefindings of the study imply that those respondents who have positive attitude toward local government, councilorsand council performance, would have the higher tendency to be actively involved in higher levels of participation,whereas who have negative attitude toward local government, would put less effort in higher levels of participation.[Seyed Hamid Mohammadi. Citizens‘ Attitude toward‘s Local Government and Citizen‘s Participation in LocalGovernment. Journal of American Science 2010;6(11):575-583]. (ISSN: 1545-1003).Keywords: Citizen attitude, Citizen participation, Local government, social exchange.The development of local government isensure people‘s involvement in local governmentmatters, thus, promoting people‘s participation inlocal government is important. Aldashev (2003)considers participation as a social behavior, and Rishi(2003) added attitude as a central element in socialbehaviors and argued that attitude is imperative formaking change of the behaviors. According to Rishi(2003) social actions of people or their personalprogram are directed by their attitudes, if the attitudeof people is positive toward an event or an action, itis more likely, that they divert their behavior in moremeaningful way (Rishi, 2003). Similarly, if localpeople have positive attitude towards localgovernment, it is more likely that they support thelocal government issues as well as participating more1. IntroductionThere is consensus among scholars, whichattitude toward local government is regarded aseffective factor to people‘s participation in localgovernment. Some scholars generally agree thatpositive attitude toward local government encouragecitizens participation in council matters (Kosecik &Sagbas, 2004, Suzanne et al, 2007). As localgovernments become increasingly important incitizens‘ everyday lives, the investigation of publicattitude toward local government is vital for successof future council programs and reforms. Withoutregular and systematic analysis of public attitude,viable local government policies will become moredifficult to design and implement in the future.http://www.americanscience.org575
Journal of American Science2010;6(11)in local government matters. Thus, understanding thecitizen attitude can help to access the degree/level ofcitizen participation in council issues. The mainobjective of this study is to describe the relationshipof citizen‘s attitude toward local government andlevel of people‘s participation in local government,on the basis of social exchange theory. The paperattempts to establish a relationship between socialexchange theory, attitude of citizens and level ofpeople‘s participation. This research is importantbecause up to present moment, there has been verylittle research or discussion focusing upon the attitudetoward local government and its relationship withlevel of participation in council matters. And also inthis study, the participation of people in localgovernment is linked with theory of social exchange.The theory of social exchange has been given onlylimited attention in participation in local governmentliterature, even though it has been extensively used inother areas such as; tourism (Aref, et al, 2009), andagriculture (Bagherian, et al, 2009).informing, consultation, and placation. In this levelcitizens may indeed hear or be heard, but under theseconditions they lack power to influence decisions(Arstein 1969). It is the illusion of a voice without thevoice itself. The highest level of ladder is citizenpower, which include; partnership, delegated powerand citizen control. In this level, citizen control allissues and win the majority of decision-making seats.Todays, Local government are well placedto play a crucial role in enhancing citizen‘sparticipation and enablinig local communities toparticipate in decision-making process (Mariana,2008).Local government is an essential componentof administrative systems of all modern societies,which look for the improvement of public servicesand provide the situation for reaching/achievementgood governance values at local level (Kosecik andSagbas, 2004). Local government providesopportunities for public participation, and ensureseffective and efficient public service delivery (Stoker,1996: 6). Public participation at local level isachieved only if local people have an interest in localgovernment affairs. The efficiency and effectivenessof local government is ensured when local people orcitizens participate in the decision-making process oflocal government and keep local government undercontrol (Kosecik and Sagbas, 2004, Jerry and David1996). Local government will make better decisionsand will have greater impact on their communities,when they increase the frequency, diversity and levelof engagement of local people. Citizen involvementin local government will produce more publicpreference decision making on part of administratorsand better appreciation by the larger communityamong the public (Stivers 1990, Oldfield 1990, Box1998).These attitudes about the benefits ofparticipation in local government are evaluated bycitizens. The evaluation of the benefits and costs oflocal government by citizens link this study withsocial exchange theory.This theory asserts that people developattitudes toward others and things based on thebenefits they could obtain while those activitiesassuming to increase benefits will be positive supportand activities assuming to be costly will tend to beperceived negatively (Napier & Napier, 1991). Socialexchange theory argues that all human relations areformed by the use of a subjective cost-benefitanalysis. For social exchange when the costs andbenefits of a relationship are equal, the relationship isdefined as equitable. The concept of equity isfundamental in social exchange theory.2. Literature ReviewCitizen participation is considered as animportant factor for successful and prosperity of localgovernment. Citizen‘s participation in localgovernment produce more efficiency in programs aswell as promote good governance (Lowndes et al,2001, According to Aref et al, (2009), withoutcommunity participation, there are obviously noaccountability, no development, and no program.Ashley & Roe, (1998) describe communityparticipation as a spectrum from passive to activeinvolvement to full local participation, where there isactive community participation and ventureownership. Meanwhile, some scholars such as; Pretty(1995), Oakley (1991), Johnson (1982), andWandersman (1987), provided a typology ofparticipation, but the most suitable typology adoptedin urban issues is Arnstein ladder. According toArnstein; participation is a process that enables―hove-nots‖ citizens, those who are excluded fromdecision-making process, to be included in future. Itis the strategy that have-notes involve in sharinginformation, and join to set pirorities and goals. TheArnstein‘s ladder has eight rungs and each rungcorresponding to the extent of citizens‘ power indetermining the plan and/or program. The eight rungsare categorized into three categories. The bottomrungs of the ladder are manipulation and therapy.These two rungs describe level of non-participation,which the real objective is not to enable people toparticipate in planning, but to enable power-holdersto educate the participants. The followingcategorization involves three levels of tokenism;http://www.americanscience.org576
Journal of American Science2010;6(11)In Homans‘ (1958) view, who is the initiatorof the theory, the social behavior is an exchange ofgoods, material goods and also non-material goods,this can be symbols of approval or prestige. Blau,(1964) also notes that individuals can also enter intoand maintain relationships, they can satisfy their owninterest as long as they are sure that the benefitsoutweigh the costs.Tbale 1: level of citizen participation in local governmentLevelsTypesCitizen controlCharacteristicsThis range is the highest level. Citizens have the degreeof power (or control) which guarantees the participationin governing a program from citizens (Arnstein, 1969).Citizen-powerDelegated powerCitizen participation is performed through negotiationsbetween citizens and authorities, this results in positiverole the citizens played in partial decision making withthe authority over a particular plan or project (Arnstein,1969).Partnershippower is in fact redistributed through negotiation betweencitizens and power-holders (Arnstein, 1969).Placation is a stage that citizens begin to have somedegree of influence though tokenism is still apparent(Arnstein, 1969).PlacationTokenismConsultationpeople are invited to give their suggestions, this rung ofthe ladder is still a sham since no assurance is offered.Concerns and ideas of citizens will not be taken intoconsideration (Arnstein, 1969).Informingauthorities inform citizens of their rights, However, moreemphasis is put on a one-way flow of information(Arnstein, 1969).With respect to group therapy, masked as citizenparticipation, should be on the lowest rung of the ladderbecause it is both dishonest and arrogant nBased on so-called citizen participation, people are placedon rubber stamp advisory committees (Arnstein, 1969).Source: Sherry Arnestein, 1969.Prekumar and Ramamurthy (1995) declared,social exchange theory has been used by someresearchers as a theoretical framework to investigatethe community relationships that are not based on theeconomical aspects, rather than they are based onnon-economical aspects, such as power, trust,interdependency, and the like. Therefore, this theoryis not only for exploration of the economic relations,rather it can be used for exploration of non-economicand social relationships. Prekumar and Ramamurthy(1995) stated social exchange theory provides thebase for the study of relationships between groupshttp://www.americanscience.organd organizations in community (Prekumar andRamamurthy 1995, p. 306). According to anization‘s behavior will be related tothe responsive behavior of the other participantswithin the relationship (Son et al. 2000). The mainissue of this viewpoint is that the relationshipbetween community groups does not necessarily needto be directly related to any economic outcomes(Hallen et al. 1991, Humphreys et al. 2001).Humphreys et al. (2001) postulate that socialexchange theory is a appropriate base for studying577
Journal of American Science2010;6(11)non-profit relationships. So, in terms of people‘sparticipation in local government, the socialexchange theory is adopted to investigate the socialaspects of relationships between citizens and localgovernment. According to Ledingham (2001)Citizens tended to participate in local government,when they perceive that local government isproviding benefits for local people, acting in the bestinterest of local people, and dedicating resources tosupport maters of importance of citizens in theexchange relationship between people and localgovernment. He added Citizens expect mutualinteractions with local government, they seek abalance between social costs of interaction with theirlocal government. Ledingham and Bruning (2001)concluded: ―To be effective, relationships need to beseen as mutually beneficial, based on mutual interestbetween an organization and its significant publics‖.People cannot be expected to present positive attitudetoward local government if the benefits and costs oflocal government is not equal for them.An attitude is a hypothetical construct thatrepresents an individual's degree of like or dislike foran item. Attitudes are generally positive or negativeviews of a person, place, thing, or event- this is oftenreferred to as the attitude object (Bagherian, et al.,2009). Attitudes are generally viewed as a kind ofdisposition toward various aspects of the worldincluding persons, events and subjects. It has beengenerally believed that attitude change is necessarybefore other behavioral modifications can be effected(Zainuddin, 1977).Kosecik & Sagbas (2004) found that there isa relationship between citizens‘ attitude toward localgovernment and level of participation in localgovernment affairs. Stevenson (2007) found thatpeople with positive attitude toward localgovernment are more likely to participate in localgovernment. Rishi (2003) outlined that understandingof attitudes is one of the central concerns in sociallife and is relatively crucial in bringing the desiredchange in the behavior. Collective and personalactions of people are directed by their attitudes.Attitudes make it possible to predict and control thebehavior, which ultimately is useful to implementprogram successfully. Kosecik & Sagbas (2004) inhttp://www.americanscience.orgtheir study found, public attitude affects publicparticipation and that is an essential element forincreasing participation in local government. Thepositive attitude toward local government can makelocal people more active and eager to participate inactivities that are related to local government.According to Hiskey and Seligson (2003) there islink between performance of local government andcitizen attitude, he demonstrates as a first step,performance of local government affect citizenattitude toward council. It is unlikely thatperformance of local government affect citizenattitude but does not influence their level ofparticipation (Hiskey and Seligson, 2003). Aspdenand Brich (2005) demonstrated that there are anumber of factors and issues that affect the publics‘attitude towards participation in local affairs anddecision-making. Their demostration consist of the;citizen interest and understanding of localgovernment, citizens satisfaction for theirinvolvement, citizen trust to local government and itsmembers, and previous experience of voluntaryparticipation (Aspden and Brich, 2005). A betterunderstanding of citizen attitude is necessary ifcouncilors are to address the very real problems ofapathy of citizens that hinder public participation,and if they are maximize the impact and effectivenessof participation (Lowndes, et.al, 2001). Publicattitude toward local government might differaccording to certain variables such as, age sex,education, occupation, and income (Kosecik &Sagbas, 2004). These variables have considerableinfluence in citizen attitude toward local governmentand consequently in their participation in councilaffairs.According to the above figure, the socialexchange theory is used to illustrate that citizensassess their interaction and cooperation with localgovernment based on benefits and costs that itsbrings to them. Participation occurs when the cost ofparticipation is low and the benefit of participation ishigh, and consequently it makes positive attitudetoward participation in local government. But if thecosts outweight the likely benefits, no interest toparticipation.578
Journal of American Science2010;6(11) Level ofParticipationAttitude towardlocal governmenMaterial benefitsBenefits andcostsSocial exchangeNon-material benefitsAssess interaction of citizenand local governmentFigure 1; Cycle of social exchange theory, attitude toward local government and level of participationThe study used survey design in whichquestionnaire was used to collect the data.Questionnaires are well-established methods ofcollecting data within social science research(Dillman, 2000). Questionnaire survey is a useful toolof research that are related to communityparticipation (Shin, 2004). A questionnaire is a datainstrument that each respondent fills out as part ofparticipating in research study (Johnson &Christensen, 2004). The respondents were 400citizens, where each citizen as respondents waschosen randomly.3. Research DesignThe study was carried out on 400 citizens inTorbat Heydarieh. Torbat Heydarieh is located in theeast north of Iran in Khorasan Razavi province; it is1005km far from Tehran (capital of Iran). In Iran, thesize of council range is between five and fifteendepending on population. Since the population ofTorbat Heydarieh is less than 200‘000, so, themembers of local government are seven (theConstitution of Islamic Republic of Iran). In some d councils due to increase in publicparticipation for achievement of its targets.Neighborhood councils are subset of localgovernment, which try to close the members of localgovernment to local people and recognize theirproblems. In Iran among the cities with less than200,000 populations, Torbat Hedarieh was the firstcity that established neighborhood council, forincreasing public participation and improving theissues. According to Ghanizadeh (1999) ―in Iran,neighborhood councils by attraction of publicparticipation have could given assistance to localgovernment in executive issues‖.http://www.americanscience.orgIn this study Cluster Sampling was used.This is type of random sample that use multi stagesand is often used to cover wide geographic areas.Cluster sampling was chosen because we believethrough that, we can select a proxy for communitythat they represent the voice of people. Thepopulation of this research will be all of theinhabitants include men and women and 17 aboveyears who live in Torbat Hedarieh. Eleven questionswere developed based on the literature review of themeasurement of attitude toward local government.The respondents were asked to insure these questionswhich were constructed to gauge their attitude579
Journal of American Science2010;6(11)toward local government, councilors and it‘sefficiency. The questionnaire was piloted tested tohave its content validated by several reviewers ofPersian background. Statements for citizen attitudewere tested for their validity using Cronbach‘s alpha.The respondents in pilot study had diversedemographic characteristics, especially with regardsto community.between respondents (citizens) in terms of theirparticipation in each level. Meanwhile, the mean ofcitizens‘ attitude in regard to local government isrelatively moderate (M 27.03, SD 7.90). Itimplies the majority of citizen have relativelymoderate attitude toward local government,councilors and its performances.The second analysis for this paper focuseson the relationships between the attitude toward localgovernment and the level of participation based onArnstein ladder. The results of the analysis are shownin table 2. The correlation between citizen attitudeand nonparticipation level is found to be negativelysignificant (r -.414, N 400, P 0.000).Meanwhile, the correlation between citizen attitudeand the level of tokenism is found to be positivelysignificant (r .323, N 400, P 0.000), as well asthe correlation between citizen attitude and citizenpower is positive and significant (r .385, N 400, P 0.000).To test the proposed objective, this researchwas used statistical statics such as Pearsoncorrelation and descriptive statistic. Pearsoncorrelation was employed to measure the degree ofrelationship between variables involved (the attitudetoward local government and levels of participation).Pearson correlation statistic is a statistical techniqueto measure the strength of the association that existbetween two quantitative variables (Ary et al., 1996).In statistics, correlation (often measured as acorrelation coefficient) points to the strength anddirection of a linear relationship between twovariables that has been determined randomly (Arefand Redzuan, 2009). And, Descriptive analysis wasemployed to determine level of people participation.In this study participation is a composite variable,consisting of three level, namely, nonparticipation (5items), tokenism (7 items), and citizen power (9items). The study used Likert-scale to measure everyitem. In the analysis, the citizen attitude wascorrelated with the three levels of participation inorder to determine the strength of their relationships.Meanwhile, means and standard deviations are thedescriptive statistics that were used to describe thebasic features of these variables.When comparing the nonparticipation,tokenism and citizen-power levels of participationwith attitude toward local government descriptively,Non-participation level has a negative relationshipwith attitude. - Since this level is unrealistic andsuperficial and its real objective is not to enablecitizens to participate in planning (Arnstein, 19969),this relationship is understandable. Because whateverattitude towards local government is positive,Participation will be increased. And it can surpassnon-participation level to reach higher levels, i.eTokenism and Citizen-Power - . However, Tokenismand Citizen-Power levels have positive relationshipwith attitude. It confirmed the assumption thatparticipation will be increased when the attitude oflocal people be positive toward local government, itsefficiency, and its services (Aspden and Brich, 2005).4. Result and DiscussionAs have been mentioned above, the mainobjective of the study is to determine the relationshipbetween citizens‘ attitude toward local governmentand level of participation. Pearson correlation wasused to identify these relationships. Table 1 showsthe findings of the study in relations to means andstandard deviations of studied variables. For the threevariables related to level of participation(nonparticipation, tokenism and citizen power), thedata reveal that generally, the mean scores ofnonparticipation level is higher than tokenism andcitizen-power. This is reflected by the means of everylevel – nonparticipation level (M 20.26, SD 3.12), tokenism level (M 17.27, SD 3.93),citizen-power level (M 15.91, SD 4.8). Thesefindings imply that participation in nonparticipationlevel is more frequent than tokenism and citizenpower. Moreover, the standard deviations show thatthere are relatively small deviations (differences)http://www.americanscience.orgThe findings from this study supported thepreviews studied in terms of citizen attitude towardlocal government and their participation in localgovernment. The findings also are consistent with thepast studied that have been concluded by Stevenson(2007) and Suzanne et al (2007). Most of thesestudies evaluated citizen attitude toward the localgovernment and services that are provided by it, andthe role of citizen attitude in participation.In addition study indicated that those peoplewho had positive attitude toward program more likelyto participate in program. These findings also areconsistent with results of Rishi (2003), Shahroudi andChizari (2008), Vicente (2008) and Asadi et al.(2009) in their research that found significant580
Journal of American elofparticipation.Table 2: Means and Standard Deviation of the studied variablesVariablesLevel of nonparticipationLevel of tokenismLevel of citizen-powerAttitude toward local governmentMeans20.2617.2215.9127.03Standard Deviation3.123.934.87.90Table 3: Correlation Matrix Analysis of Attitude toward Local government and Levels of Participation(n 400)VariableXY1Y2Y3X- Attitude toward local governmentY1- Non-Participation levelY2- Tokenism levelY3- Citizen-Power level** Correlation is significant at 0.01 493**1.00government, which play a significant role inencouraging citizens to participate. Therefore theresult of this study indicates main recommendation,that is; focus on measures which are believed toimprove citizen attitudes to local government. Thefindings of this study have an implication onunderstanding the role of attitude in participation inlocal government. It is suggested that the goodperformance of local government make a positiveattitude toward local government among citizens orlocal people. Consequently local government canreceive a support from local communities. As, localgoverenment is important to citizens in daily lives,positive attitude toward local government canencourage them to engage in council issues. Howeverthe creation of such attitude toward local governmentin Iran has always been challenged, because, peoplewould rather consider local government as agovernmental organ than public and nongovernmental organ, level of public knowledge aboutthe functions of local government, and lack ofefficient and expertise among councilors.5. ConclusionBy using social exchange theory framework,this paper attempts to illustrate the relationshipbetween attitude towards local government and thelevel of participation. This theory helps to create aclear understanding about the relationship betweenperceived attitude and support for local governmentmatters.This study aimed at examining citizenattitude to local government and its relationship withlevel of participation, based on the findings of thequestionnaire carried out in Torbat Hedarieh city,Iran. The basic argument about this study was thatcitizen‘s participation is the most important part oflocal government, which enhanced efficiency andeffectiveness of council issues. The efficiency of theperformance of local government is ensured ifcitizens participate in decision-making process andhold local government accountable. If citizens are notinterested in local government and remain passive, itis not expected that the responsibilities of localgovernment to the citizens will be undertaken.From the study, it is found that there islinear relationship between level of participation andcitizen attitude. It can be concluded that, if citizenattitude toward local government is positive, it ismore likely that citizens are willing to participate incouncil affairs. Also, according to literature and otherresearches, attitude is one of the most important andeffective factors for participation in ev, Gani, (2003). Electoral Participation basedon Social Exchange: Theory and Evidence. BocconiUniversity. Milan, Italy.581
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Sep 30, 2010 · Faculty of Human Ecology, Putra University, Malaysia Tel: 60-17-2118806 E-mail: hmd_mohamadi@yahoo.com Sharifah Norazizan Department of Social and Development Sciences Faculty of Human Ecology, Putra University, Malaysia E-mail: sharifah@putra.upm.edu.my Nobaya Ahmad Department of Social and Development Sciences
Cognitive attitude also exerts a positive impact on affective attitude. The empirical test of Hee-Dong et al. (2004)’s found support for a positive influence of cognitive attitude on affective attitude. Hence: H 9: Cognitive attitude positively influences affective attitude. Attitude may
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