Nemerow’s Pollution Index: For Ground Water Quality
Journal of Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1(1) (2015) 23–31ISSN: 2455-0272Contents List available at JACS DirectoryJournal of Environmental Science and Pollution Researchjournal homepage: http://www.jacsdirectory.com/jesprNemerow’s Pollution Index: For Ground Water Quality AssessmentS. Swati1, S. Umesh2,*1Department2DepartmentARTICLEof Chemistry, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur – 302025, Rajasthan, India.of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, Chanakya Technical Campus, Jaipur – 303006, Rajasthan, India.DETAILSArticle history:Received 16 November 2015Accepted 25 November 2015Available online 11 December 2015Keywords:Groundwater QualityPhysico-Chemical ParametersNemerow’s Pollution Index (NPI)Bassi Tehsil and RajasthanABSTRACTThe present study was intended to assess the ground water quality for drinking purpose and todetermine principal pollutants of ground water through Nemerow’s Pollution Index (NPI) in Bassi Tehsilof district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. For this ground water samples from 71 sampling sites of 50 villagesof study area were collected from tube wells and hand pumps of varying depths in pre and post monsoonseasons and analyzed for ten physico-chemical parameters namely pH, total alkalinity, total hardness,calcium, magnesium, chloride, nitrate, fluoride, total dissolved solid and electrical conductivity. Analysisof results showed that almost all parameters were exceeding the permissible limits prescribed by BIS,ICMR and WHO. According to NPI values the observed principal pollutants (pollution causingparameters) in the present study are total alkalinity, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, total dissolved solids andelectrical conductivity in both pre and post monsoon seasons.1. Introduction“Water is life's matter and matrix, mother and medium. There is no lifewithout water”. Potable safe water is absolutely essential and is the basicneed of all human beings on the earth. Due to rapid industrialization andsubsequent contamination of surface and ground water sources, waterconservation and water quality management has now a day’s assumed avery complex shape. Attention on contamination and its management hasbecome a need of the hour, because of its far reaching impact on humanhealth.In Rajasthan water is not only saline but it also contain many dissolvedsubstances, due to which water is not suitable for drinking. Thesesubstances have either the toxic effects on the consumer or have longterms indirect effects [1-3]. Other than salinity, presence of many metalions, chloride, sulphate, nitrate and fluoride are the major factors of thewater quality, which influence badly the human health [4].All the 33 districts of Rajasthan have been declared as fluorososis proneareas. The worst are- Nagaur, Jaipur, Sikar, Jodhpur, Barmer, Ajmer, Sirohi,Jhunjhunu, Churu, Bikaner, Ganganagar etc. [5, 6]. Nitrate is also one ofthe most common groundwater contaminants in Rajasthan. Ajmer, Alwar,Banaswara, Baran, Barmer, Bundi, Bharatpur, Bhilwara, Bikaner,Chittaurgarh, Churu, Dausa, Dhaulpur, Dungarpur, Ganganagar,Hanumangarh, Jaipur, Jaisalmer, Jalor, Jhalawar, Jhunjhunun, Jodhpur,Karauli, Kota, Nagaur, Pali, Partapgarh, Rajsamand, Sirohi, Sikar, SawaiMadhopur, Tonk, Udaipur districts have been reported nitrateconcentration more than 45 mg/L [7].In Amer, Bassi, Chomu, Jamwa Ramgarh, Kotputali, Shahpura and ViratNagar tehsils of Jaipur district there is the problem of high fluoride andnitrate concentrations in groundwater [8].For the assessment of water quality several indices have beendeveloped and are in usage from time to time. In the present studyNemerow’s Pollution Index has been adopted to assess the status ofexisting water quality and to identify the physico-chemical parameterscausing pollution. Nemerow’s pollution index (NPI) is a simplifiedpollution index introduced by Neme [9] which is also known as Raw’spollution index. NPI provides information about extent of pollution for aparticular water quality parameter with reference to its standard value. Bycalculating and analyzing the NPI values of water quality parameters for aregion, principal pollutants of that region can be identified; which is a vital*Corresponding AuthorEmail Address: saxenaumesh@yahoo.com (Umesh Saxena)information regarding deteriorating water quality of the area and also forthe improvement of water quality in the area.2. Experimental Methods2.1 Study AreaRajasthan is known as “the land of king” and it is the largest state of therepublic of India in terms of geographical spread. It is situated in theNorth- Western part of India having total area is around 3, 42, 239 sq.km.which represents 10.41% of total area of the country and population of6.86 crores spread over in 44,672 villages, which is 5.67% of nationspopulation but being just available 1% of the total water resources of thecountry. The state has extreme climatic and geographical condition and itsuffers both the problems of quantity and quality of water [10, 11].Jaipur, the capital of Rajasthan, has a total area of 11,117 sq. Kmcovering the 3.23% of the total area of the state, administered by 13 tehsilsor sub-divisions. Our focused area of study is Bassi tehsil, out of the 13tehsils of Jaipur district. The area of tehsil is 654.69 sq.km, located at 26096’N latitude and 75062’E longitude. In Bassi Tehsil there are 210 villages (famousfor their leather footwear and Embroidery beading). In the study area thereare no major surface water sources however; main sources of drinkingwater are open wells, hand pumps and bore wells [12-14].In Bassi Tehsil 84 villages are reported having fluoride concentrationmore than 1.5 ppm, 78 villages are exhibiting nitrate concentration morethan 45 ppm and 30 villages are having Electrical conductivity more than3000 micromhos/cm [13, 15].Review of literature reveals that very few studies have been made toscientifically investigate the ground water contamination of the study area. Thepresent study aims to calculate the Nemerow’s Pollution Index (NPI) in mostrural habitations of Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur, Rajasthan, India in order to assessthe suitability of ground water for human uses and to identify the principalpollutants of ground water in the study area; it also deals with the necessity ofrestoring the water quality.2.2 Sample CollectionGround water samples from a total of 71 sampling sites of 50 villages ofBassi Tehsil were collected in pre-cleaned and rinsed polyethene bottlesof two litre capacity with necessary precautions [16]. The total watercollection in the year of 2013 is divided in to two seasons, one is premonsoon and another one is post monsoon. The sampling is carried out,during April 2013 for pre monsoon season and in September-October2013 for post monsoon season from manually operated tube wells andhand pumps of varying depth.2455-0272 / JACS Directory 2015. All Rights ReservedCite this Article as: S. Swati, S. Umesh, Nemerow’s pollution index: for ground water quality assessment, J. Env. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1(1) (2015) 23–31.
S. Swati and S. Umesh / Journal of Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1(1) (2015) 23–312.3 Physico-Chemical AnalysisAll the samples were analyzed for the following Physico-chemicalparameters; pH, Total Alkalinity (TA), Total Hardness (TH), Calciumhardness (CaH), Magnesium hardness (MgH), Chloride, Nitrate, Fluoride,Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) and Electrical Conductivity (EC). The analysisof water samples were out carried in accordance to standard analyticalmethods [17]. All the chemicals used were of AR grade and double distilledwater used for preparation of solutions. Details of the analysis methodsare summarized in Table 1.2.4 Nemerow’s Pollution Index (NPI) CalculationNPI is calculated with the help of following equation,NPI 𝑪𝒊𝑳𝒊ithWhere, Ci - Observed concentration of parameter; Li - Permissible limitof ith parameter.Each value of NPI shows the relative pollution contributed by singleparameter, It should be less than or equal to one. NPI values exceeding 1.0indicate the presence of impurity in water [9, 18, 19].Table 1 Parameters and methods employed in the physicochemical examination ofwater samplesS.No.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.ParameterspHTotal AlkalinityTotal Hardness (as CaCO3)Ca Hardness (as CaCO3)Mg Hardness (as CaCO3)Chloride (as Cl-)Nitrate (as NO3-)Fluoride (as F-)Total Dissolved SolidsElectrical s/cmMethod EmployedDigital pH-meterTitrimetric method (with H2SO4)Titrimetric method (with EDTA)Titrimetric methodTitrimetric methodTitrimetric method (with AgNO3)Spectrophotometric methodIon Selective ElectrodeDigital TDS-meterDigital Conductivity-meter3. Results and Discussion3.1 Physico-Chemical ParametersThe respective values of all observed water quality parameters ofgroundwater samples in pre and post monsoon seasons are illustrated inTables 2 and 4 respectively. Statistical Parameters of groundwatersamples of study area in both seasons are summarized in Tables 3 and 5.3.2 Quality Assessment using NPIWater quality parameters mentioned in Tables 2 and 4 are consideredfor calculating the NPI values using the above mentioned method. Li valuesfor different water quality parameters are indicated in Table 6. NPI valueexceeding 1.0 indicate the presence of impurity in water and hence requiresome treatment prior to use.As per Nemerow’s Pollution Index (NPI), the pollution creatingparameters at each station is calculated and presented in Tables 7 and 8.These tables show the results of NPI. The predominant pollutants in thestudy area at each station are identified and presented in Tables 9 and 10.The detailed explanation of each parameter in the study is given below.3.2.1 pHIn pre-monsoon season all seventy one sampling sites are found to haveNPI values less than one while in post- monsoon season out of the seventyone samples two sampling sites Akhepura (TW) and Jhajhwar (TW) arehaving the NPI values greater than one. Alkaline state of pH might be dueto the chemical buffering and release of bicarbonate and carbonate ions orsalts [20].3.2.2 Total AlkalinityAlkalinity is the sum total of components in the water that tend toelevate the pH to the alkaline side of neutrality. Commonly occurringmaterials in water that increase alkalinity are carbonate, phosphates andhydroxides. Limestone bedrock and thick deposits of glacial till are goodsources of carbonate buffering [21]. In our study, the NPI values are verymuch higher for alkalinity in both pre and post monsoon seasons. In premonsoon there is only one sample having NPI value less than one – Tungaand in post monsoon all samples are found to have NPI value greater thanone.3.2.3 Total HardnessThe total hardness is an important parameter of water quality whetherit is to be used for domestic, industrial or agricultural purposes. It is mainly24due to the presence of excess of Ca, Mg salts. The carbonate andbicarbonate concentrations are useful to determine the temporaryhardness and alkalinity. It is an indicator for hydrogeology and aestheticquality of groundwater [22]. Out of the seventy one samples 23 samplesare showing the NPI values greater than one in pre and post monsoonseasons both and indicate pollution.3.2.4 CalciumThe samples 14 and 10 have NPI values exceeding one in pre and postmonsoon seasons respectively. Calcium is also essential for healthygrowth of bones and plays important role in biological systems. Calcium ismost abundant ions in fresh water and is important in shell construction,bone building and plant precipitation of lime [23].3.2.5 MagnesiumMagnesium is a beneficial metal but is toxic at higher concentration.Magnesium hardness associated with sulphate ion has laxative effect onpersons not accustomed to it [24]. Out of the seventy one samples 32 and38 samples are calculated having NPI values greater than one in pre andpost monsoon seasons respectively.3.2.6 ChlorideIn pre monsoon 20 and in post monsoon 15 samples have NPI valuesmore than one and represent pollution with reference to this parameter.All type of natural and raw water contains chlorides. It comes fromactivities carried out in agricultural area, industrial activities and fromchloride stones. Its concentration is also high because of human activities.3.2.7 NitrateIn pre 12 samples and in post monsoon seasons 11 samples arerepresenting NPI values greater than one. The high nitrogen content is anindicator of organic pollution. It may results from the added nitrogenousfertilizers, decay of dead plants and animals, animal urine, or feces. Theyare all oxidized to nitrate by natural process and hence nitrogen is presentin the form of nitrate. The increase in one or all the above factors isresponsible for the increase of nitrate content. The ground watercontamination is due to the leaching of nitrate present on the surface withpercolating water [25, 26].3.2.8 FluorideThe presence of fluoride in ground water can be attributed to geologicalreasons [27]. Fluoride exists naturally in water sources. Generally mostgroundwater sources have higher fluoride concentrations than surfacewater. The main source of fluoride in groundwater is basically from therocks minerals. The concentration of fluoride in water sources dependsupon various factors like source of water, solvent action of water on therocks and soil of earth’s crust, porosity of the rocks or soil through whichwater passes, the speed with which water flows, the temperature of theinteraction of the rock and water, the hydrogen and calcium ionconcentration, amount of annual rainfall etc. [5, 6, 27, 28]. In our study, outof the seventy one samples 24 samples have NPI values exceeding oneindicating the higher contamination level of fluoride in the study area.3.2.9 Total Dissolved SolidsTotal dissolved solids denote mainly the various kinds of mineralspresent in the water. TDS are compounds of inorganic salts (principallyCa 2, Mg 2, K , Na , HCO3-, Cl- and SO42-) and of small amounts of organicmatter that are dissolved in water. Presence of high levels of TDS in watermay be objectionable to consumers owing to the resulting taste and toexcessive scaling in water pipes, heaters, boilers and householdappliances. Water with extremely low concentrations of TDS may also beunacceptable to consumers because of its flat, insipid taste. It is also oftencorrosive to water supply system [29]. In the present study only for 2 and4 sampling sites the value of NPI is less than one in pre and post monsoonseason, respectively, indicating the fresh water quality.3.2.10 Electrical ConductivityThe importance of EC is its measure of salinity; which greatly affects thetaste. Thus EC has a significant impact on determining the potability ofwater. EC is a measure of water capability to transmit electric current andalso it is a tool to assess the purity of water [30]. Conductivity of waterdepends upon the concentration of ions, its nutrient status and variationin dissolve solid content. In our entire study only one sample in premonsoon season namely Tunga has NPI value less than one rest all arefound to have very large NPI values in comparison to one indicating thepresence of higher amounts of total dissolved solids.Cite this Article as: S. Swati, S. Umesh, Nemerow’s pollution index: for ground water quality assessment, J. Env. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1(1) (2015) 23–31.
25S. Swati and S. Umesh / Journal of Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1(1) (2015) 23–31Table 2 Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater samples – premonsoon eHPSample No.S1pH7.9TA411TH529CaH237Ca 2 ions94.8MgH292Mg 2 5194.671200171412Danau u 833581.4468140.72171310116Ghata17Gudha 420Hans 65553501405621051.0364450.752520360030Kuthada 2105015003334Nagal 4.21028146945Siya Ka e this Article as: S. Swati, S. Umesh, Nemerow’s pollution index: for ground water quality assessment, J. Env. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1(1) (2015) 23–31.
26S. Swati and S. Umesh / Journal of Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1(1) (2015) 93090.622453207*Where- TA Total Alkalinity, TH Total Hardness, CaH Calcium Hardness, MgH Magnesium Hardness, Cl - Chloride, NO3- Nitrate, F- Fluoride, TDS Total Dissolved Solids,EC Electrical Conductivity. All parameters are expressed in mg/L except pH and EC. EC is expressed in µmhos/cm.Ca 2 Ca mg/L (as CaCO3), Mg 2 Mg mg/L (as CaCO3)Table 3 Minimum, maximum and average characteristics of groundwater sampling stations – pre monsoon otal Alkalinity (mg/L)Total Harness (mg/L)Calcium Hardness (mg/L)Ca 2 Ions (mg/L)MagnesiumHardness (mg/L)Mg 2 Ions (mg/L)Chloride (mg/L)Nitrate (mg/L)Fluoride (mg/L)TDS (mg/L)EC 61.961589.882271.05Standard 4835.642.41899.481285.04Table 4 Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater samples – post monsoon seasonS.No.VillageSourceSamplepHTATHCaHCa 2 ionsMgHMg 2 136512Danau anau 21786.828469.01367170.961669238416Ghata17Gudha iHPS277.75102701255014535.238061.4891127320Hans 02279236.813532.880260.491333190430Kuthada KalanHPS437.67852621104415236.9342210.58001142Cite this Article as: S. Swati, S. Umesh, Nemerow’s pollution index: for ground water quality assessment, J. Env. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1(1) (2015) 23–31.
27S. Swati and S. Umesh / Journal of Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1(1) (2015) 156341.86939903334Nagal 160745Siya Ka 3090.6516042291Table 5 Minimum, maximum and average characteristics of groundwater sampling stations – post monsoon seasonS.No.ParameterMinimumMaximumAverageStandard Deviation1.pH7.18.67.800.312.Total Alkalinity (mg/L)168871495.04174.153.Total Harness (mg/L)481100276.26195.794.Calcium Hardness (mg/L)21423118.3887.055.Ca 28.4169.247.3534.826.MagnesiumHardness (mg/L)26677157.88111.317.Mg 2 Ions (mg/L)6.31164.5138.3627.058.Chloride (mg/L)201455171.04206.729.Nitrate (mg/L)230932.7740.6010.Fluoride (mg/L)0.1412.21.822.2011.TDS (mg/L)40854341252.28746.3612.EC (µS/cm)58377631788.871066.23Ions (mg/L)Table 6 List of permissible value (Li) for water quality parameters in NPIS. No.ParameterPermissible ValueRecommending Agency1.pH8.5BIS/ICMR/WHO2.Total Alkalinity120 (mg/L)ICMR/WHO3.Total Hardness300 (mg/L)BIS/ICMR4.Ca 2 Ions75 (mg/L)BIS/ICMR/WHO5.Mg 2 Ions30 (mg/L)BIS/ICMR/WHO6.Chloride250 (mg/L)BIS/ICMR7.Nitrate45 (mg/L)BIS/ICMR/WHO8.Fluoride1.5 (mg/L)BIS/ICMR/WHO9.Total Dissolved Solids500 (mg/L)BIS/ICMR/WHO10.Electrical Conductivity300 (µS/cm)ICMR/WHOCite this Article as: S. Swati, S. Umesh, Nemerow’s pollution index: for ground water quality assessment, J. Env. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1(1) (2015) 23–31.
28S. Swati and S. Umesh / Journal of Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1(1) (2015) 23–31Table 7 Pollution causing parameters evaluated through Nemerow’s pollution index (NPI) in pre monsoon WBaralaHPHPBassiTWBenadaHPBharampurHPChainpuriya HPChapariyaHPCharangarhHPChatarpuraHPDanau Kalan HPHPDanau KhurdTWGarhHPHPGhasipuraTWHPGhataTWGudha Meena HPHPGumanpuraTWGwaliniHPHans raHPKuthada KalanHPLalgarhHPHPMundaliTWHPNagal raTWSambhariyaHPShankarpura HPSiya Ka 67S68S69S70S71pHCi &NPITACi &NPITHCi &NPICa ionsCi &NPIMg ionsCi &NPIClCi &NPINO3Ci &NPIFCi &NPITDSCi &NPIECCi &NPI7.9 , (0.9)411, (3.4)529, (1.76)94.8, (1.26)70.95, (2.36)400, (1.6)56, (1.24)0.71, (0.47)2216, (4.4)3165, (10.5)8.4, (0.9)305, (2.5)115, (0.38)17.2, (0.23)17.49, (0.58)31, (0.12)15, (0.33)1.44, (0.96)778, (1.55)1111, (3.70)7.9, (0.9)748, (6.2)360, (1.2)60.4, (0.81)50.78, (1.69)278, (1.11)22, (0.48)0.37, (0.25)2100, (4.2)3000, (10.0)8.3, (0.9)462, (3.85)161, (0.53)26.8, (0.35)22.84, (0.76)176, (0.70)18, (0.4)1.8, (1.2)1470, (2.94)2100, (7.0)7.5, (0.88)651, (5.42)516, (1.72)68.8, (0.92)83.59, (2.78)137, (0.55)28, (0.62)2.12, (1.41)1696, (3.39)2422, (8.07)8.4, (0.98)396, (3.3)105, (0.35)16, (0.21)15.79, (0.52)123, (0.49)12, (0.26)1.99, ( 1.33)1298, (2.59)1855, (6.18)7.5, (0.88)586, (4.88)192, (0.64)31.2, (0.42)27.7, (0.92)333, (1.33)78, (1.73)2.05, (1.36)2146, (4.29)3065, (10.21)8.4, (0.98)258, (2.15)158, (0.52)25.6, (0.34)22.84, (0.76)202, (0.81)86, (1.91)1.14, (0.76)1590, (3.18)2271, (7.57)7.8, (0.91)333, (2.77)156, (0.52)26.8, (0.36)21.62, (0.72)163, (0.65)44, (0.97)0.79, (0.53)1191, (2.38)1701, (5.69)7.6, (0.89)435, (3.63)732, (2.44)134.4, (1.79)96.22, (3.21)315, (1.26)131, (0.52)0.93, (0.62)1740, (3.48)2486, (8.28)7.7, (0.90)368, (3.06)188, (0.63)31.2, (0.42)26.73, (0.89)176, (0.70)20, (0.44)0.42, (0.28)920, (1.84)1314, (4.38)7.7, (0.90)562, (4.68)115, (0.38)18.4, (0.24)16.76, (0.56)80, (0.32)12, (0.27)1.3, (0.86)1034, (2.06)1477, (4.92)7.7, (0.90)426, (3.55)163, (0.54)28, (0.37)22.59, (0.75)60, (0.24)70, (1.55)1.13, (0.75)760, (1.52)1085, (3.61)7.4, (0.87)243, (2.02)264, (0.88)48.4, (0.65)34.74, (1.15)33, (0.13)29, (0.64)0.71, (0.47)792, (1.58)1131, (3.77)7.6, (0.89)707, (5.89)112, (0.37)18, (0.24)16.28, (0.22)65, (0.26)19, (0.42)4.67, (3.11)1200, (2.4)1714, (5.71)8.2, (0.96)582, (4.85)46, (0.15)8.8, (0.18)5.83, (0.19)20, (0.08)22, (0.48)1.4, (0.93)1055, (2.11)1507, (5.02)7.7, (0.90)409, (3.41)568, (1.89)82.4, (1.09)87.96, (2.93)484, (1.94)8, (0.17)0.9, (0.6)2644, (2.28)3777, (12.59)8.2, (0.96)458, (3.81)284, (0.95)48.4, (0.65)39.6, (1.32)140, (0.56)22, (0.48)2.9, (1.93)1680, (3.36)2400, (8.0)8.1, (0.95)651, (5.43)108, (0.36)17.6, (0.23)15.55, (0.51)361, (1.44)118, (2.62)1, (0.66)1962, (3.92)2803, (9.34)8.4, (0.98)344, (2.87)88, (0.29)12.8, (0.17)13.6, (0.45)20, (0.08)38, (0.84)0.03, (0.02)847, (1.69)1210, (4.03)8.3, (0.97)766, (6.38)74, (0.25)13.2, (0.17)9.96, (0.33)51, (0.20)26, (0.58)11.4, (7.6)1613, (3.22)2304, (7.68)7.1, (0.83)402, (3.35)437, (1.46)79.2, (1.05)58.07, (1.93)601, (2.40)11, (0.24)0.86, (0.57)2593, (5.18)3704, (12.35)7.3, (0.85)467, (3.89)632, (2.11)118.8, (1.58)81.4, (2.71)468, (1.87)14, (0.31)0.7, (0.46)2171, (4.34)3101, (10.34)7.8, (0.91)423, (3.52)160, (0.53)26.4, (0.35)22.84, (0.76)23, (0.09)18, (0.4)0.27, (0.18)980, (1.96)1400, (4.67)7.8, (0.91)460, (3.83)317, (1.06)51.2, (0.68)45.92, (1.53)380, (1.52)16, (0.35)0.88, (0.59)2310, (4.62)3300, (11.0)7.9, (0.92)595, (4.96)528, (1.76)95.2, (1.27)70.47, (2.34)259, (1.03)72, (1.6)1.4, (0.93)1764, (3.52)2520, (8.4)7.9, (0.92)520, (4.33)374, (1.24)68.4, (0.91)49.32, (1.64)22, (0.08)8, (0.17)1.8, (1.2)1333, (2.66)1904, (6.35)7.6, (0.89)157, (1.31)424, (1.41)74.8, (0.99)57.59, (1.92)220, (0.88)7, (0.15)0.32, (0.21)1182, (2.36)1688, (5.63)7.7, (0.90)552, (4.6)123, (0.41)20.4, (0.27)17.49, (0.58)83, (0.33)27, (0.6)0.8, (0.53)967, (1.93)1381, (4.60)8.2, (0.96)784, (6.53)67, (0.22)9.2, (0.12)10.69, (0.36)95, (0.38)24, (0.5
causing pollution. Nemerow’s pollution index (NPI) is a simplified pollution index introduced by Neme [9] which is also known as Raw’s pollution index. NPI provides information about extent of pollution for a particular water quality parameter with reference to its standard value. By
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LÄS NOGGRANT FÖLJANDE VILLKOR FÖR APPLE DEVELOPER PROGRAM LICENCE . Apple Developer Program License Agreement Syfte Du vill använda Apple-mjukvara (enligt definitionen nedan) för att utveckla en eller flera Applikationer (enligt definitionen nedan) för Apple-märkta produkter. . Applikationer som utvecklas för iOS-produkter, Apple .
Unit 5 : Environmental Pollution Definition Cause, effects and control measures of :- a. Air pollution b. Water pollution c. Soil pollution d. Marine pollution e. Noise pollution f. Thermal pollution g. Nuclear hazards Solid waste Management : Causes, effects and control measures of urban and industrial wastes.
Waterhead 1003 1346 St James 1041 1393 Chadderton South 1370 964 Failsworth West 1596 849 Chadderton North 2038 791 Chadderton Central 2096 695 Failsworth East 2234 643 Shaw 2295 893 Royton South 3008 628 Royton North 3297 808 Crompton 3858 510 Saddleworth West and Lees 3899 380 Saddleworth North 5892 309 Saddleworth South 6536 260 3.3 There is a wealth of evidence to suggest links between .
