STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR ARCHITECTURE
STRUCTURAL DESIGNFOR ARCHITECTUREANGUS J MACDONALD
Structural Design for ArchitectureAngus J. MacdonaldArchitectural Press
Architectural Press225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-204An imprint of Butterworth-HeinemannLinacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford 0X2 8DPA division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing LtdA member of the Reed Elsevier plc groupOXFORDBOSTONMELBOURNEJOHANNESBURGNEW DELHISINGAPOREFirst published 1997Reprinted 1998 Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 1997All rights reserved. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced in any material form (includingphotocopying or storing in any medium by electronicmeans and whether or not transiently or incidentallyto some other use of this publication) without thewritten permission of the copyright holder exceptin accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of alicence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 9HE.Applications for the copyright holder's written permissionto reproduce any part of this publication should be addressedto the publishers.British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataMacdonald, Angus J.Structural design for architecture1. Architectural design 2. Structural design1.Title721ISBN 0 7506 3090 6Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication DataMacdonald, Angus, 1945Structural design for architecture/Angus J. Macdonald.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0 7506 3090 61. Buildings. 2. Structural Design. 3. Architectural design.1. n by Scribe Design, Gillingham, KentPrinted and bound in Great Britain
Contents4.3 A brief introduction to concretetechnology 1184.4 Structural forms for reinforced concrete130Foreword viiPreface ixAcknowledgements xi1 Structure and architecture 11.1 The role of structure in architecture1.2 Structural requirements 41.3 Structure types 51.4 Structural materials 111.5 Structural design 1712 Structural design for architecture 222.1 Introduction 222.2 The relationship between structuraldesign and architectural design 242.3 Selection of the generic type ofstructure 342.4 Selection of the structural material 402.5 Determination of the form of thestructure 412.6 Conclusion 473 Steel structures 493.1 Introduction 493.2 The architecture of steel - the factorswhich affect the decision to select steelas a structural material 493.3 The properties and composition ofsteel 613.4 Structural steel products 633.5 Performance of steel in fire 723.6 Structural forms 734 Reinforced concrete structures 994.1 Introduction 994.2 The architecture of reinforced concrete the factors which affect the decision toselect reinforced concrete as astructural material 1005 Masonry structures 1475.1 Introduction 1475.2 The architecture of masonry - factorswhich affect the decision to usemasonry as a structural material 1475.3 The basic forms of masonry structures1646 Timber structures 1796.1 Introduction 1796.2 Timber and architecture 1806.3 The material, its properties andcharacteristics 1906.4 Properties of timber 1926.5 Grading of timber 1966.6 Timber components 1986.7 Structural forms for timber 215Selected bibliography233Appendix 1: The relationship betweenstructural form and structuralefficiency 235Appendix 2: Approximate methods forallocating sizes to structural elements 239A2.1 Introduction 239A2.2 Structural analysis 239A2.3 Element-sizing calculations 249A2.4 Steel structures 258A2.5 Reinforced concrete structures 262A2.6 Masonry structures 263A2.7 Timber structures 263Index265V
ForewordAngus Macdonald states that this book isprimarily for architects. In my view it is also anextremely good reference book on architecturalstructures for students and practisingstructural engineers.He stresses that buildings are designed as acollaborative task between architects andengineers and that the earlier in the designprocess this happens, the better the result.Current teaching ideas in many universitiesare, at last, acknowledging the benefits of jointstudent working and it has certainly been myexperience that close working produces thebest product.The early part of the book covers the history,technology and structural philosophy ofnumerous buildings and building types andhas a very comprehensive review of structuralsystems with excellent examples of seminalbuildings and their structures. It also coversthe history of structural'material development.The section on structure in relation toarchitecture: structure ignored, accepted,symbolised and high tech (i.e. celebrated orexpressionist) is apt but contentious and couldresult in some lively discussion betweenarchitect and engineer,The book then divides into sections on themajor structural materials - steel, concrete,masonry and timber. Each of these sectionsfollows a similar pattern and includesproperties, advantages and disadvantages,common structural forms, etc.Structural Design for Architecture is acomprehensive and up-to-date work on therelationship of structure to architecture and willform an extremely useful reference work for bothstudents and practitioners of architecture andengineering. I highly recommend it and lookforward to having a copy in our office library,Professor Tony HuntChairmanAnthony Hunt AssociatesJune 1997Previous pageis blankvii
PrefaceThe architect who considers him or herself tobe an artist, dealing through the medium ofbuilt form with the philosophical preoccupations of the age in which he or she lives, issurely engaged in a titanic struggle. Oneaspect of that struggle is the need to determine building forms which are structurallyviable. All artists must acquire mastery of thetechnology of their chosen medium but fewface difficulties which are as formidable asthose who choose buildings as their means ofexpression. The sculptor has to contend withsimilar structural problems but his or her difficulties are trivial by comparison with those ofthe architect. The difference is one of scale the size of a building, compared to that of awork of sculpture, means that the technicalhurdle which must be surmounted by thearchitect is of a different order of magnitude tothose which are faced by most other artists.The structure of a building is the armaturewhich preserves its integrity in response toload. It is a bulky object which is difficult toconceal and which must somehow be incorporated into the aesthetic programme. It musttherefore be given a form, by the building'sdesigner, which is compatible with otheraspects of the building's design. Several fundamental issues connected with the appearanceof a building including its overall form, thepattern of its fenestration, the general articulation of solid and void within it and even, possibly, the range and juxtaposition of thetextures of its visible surfaces are affected bythe nature of its structure. The structure canalso influence programmatic aspects of a building's design because the capability of the structure determines the pattern of internal spaceswhich is possible. Its span potential will deter-mine the maximum sizes of the internal spacesand its type affects the extent to which thesizes and shapes of the spaces can be variedboth within an individual storey and betweenstoreys.The relationship between structure andarchitecture is therefore a fundamental aspectof the art of building. It sets up conflictsbetween the technical and aesthetic agendaswhich the architect must resolve. The mannerin which the resolution is carried out is one ofthe most testing criteria of the success of awork of architecture.This book is concerned with structuraldesign for architecture. It complements myprevious volume, Structure and Architecture, anddiscusses the selection of structure type, theselection of structural material and the determination of structural form. It deals primarilywith the development of the idea of the structure for a building - that first stage in thestructural design process which is concernedwith the determination of the elementary formand arrangement of the structure, before anystructural design calculations are made. It isintended primarily for architects and it ishoped that it will enable students andmembers of the profession to gain a betterunderstanding of the relationship betweenstructural design and architectural design. Thebasic structural layouts and approximateelement sizes which are given in Chapters 3 to6 should, however, also allow building designers to use the book as an aid to the basicplanning of structural forms.Previous pageis blankAngus MacdonaldEdinburghJuly 1997ix
Acknowledgements1 would like to thank the many people whohave assisted me in the making of this book.These are too numerous for all to bementioned individually, but special thanks aredue to the following: Stephen Gibson for hisexcellent line drawings, the staff ofArchitectural Press for their hard work inproducing the book, particularly Neil WarnockSmith, Zoë Youd and Sarah Leatherbarrow. Iwould also like to thank the staff and studentsof the Department of Architecture at theUniversity of Edinburgh for the many helpfuldiscussions which I have had with them on thetopics covered in this book.Illustrations, other than thosecommissioned especially for the book, areindividually credited in their captions. Thanksare due to all those who supplied illustrationsand especially to the Ove Arup Partnership,George Balcombe, Sir Norman Foster andPartners, Paul H. Gleye, Pat Hunt, Tony Hunt,the late Alastair Hunter, Jill Hunter, DenysLasdun Peter Softley and Associates, Ewan andFiona McLachlan, Dr Rowland J. Mainstone andthe Maritime Trust. I am also grateful to theBritish Standards Institution for permission toreproduce tables,Finally, I should like to thank my wifePatricia Macdonald for her encouragement andsupport and for her valuable contributions tothe preparation of the manuscript andillustrations,Angus MacdonaldPrevious pageis blankxi
Chapter 1Structure and architecture1.1 The role of structure inarchitectureThe final form which is adopted for a work ofarchitecture is influenced by many factorsranging from the ideological to the severelypractical. This book is concerned principallywith the building as a physical object and, inparticular, with the question of the structuralsupport which must be provided for a buildingin order that it can maintain its shape andintegrity in the physical world. The role of thebuilding as an aesthetic object, often imbuedwith symbolic meaning, is, however, alsocentral to the argument of the book; onestrand of this argument considers that theFig. 1.1 Offices, Dufour'sPlace, London, England,1984. Erith and Terry, architects. As well as having aspace-enclosing function theexternal walls of this building are the loadbearingelements which carry theweights of the floors androof. [Photo: E. & F.McLachlan]
Structural Design for ArchitectureFig. 1.2 Crown Hall, 1IT, Chicago, USA, 1952-56. LudwigMies van der Rohe, architect. This building has a steelframe structure. The glass walls are entirely non-structural.contribution of the structure to the achievement of higher architectural objectives isalways crucial. Technical issues are accordinglyconsidered here within a wider agenda whichencompasses considerations other than thoseof practicality.The relationship between the structural andthe non-structural parts of a building may varywidely. In some buildings the space-enclosingelements - the walls, floors and roof - are alsostructural elements, capable of resisting andconducting load (Fig. 1.1). In others, such asbuildings with large areas of glazing on theexterior walls, the structure can be entirelyseparate from the space-enclosing elements(Fig. 1.2). In all cases the structure forms thebasic carcass of the building - the armature towhich all non-structural elements are attached.The visual treatment of structure can besubject to much variation. The structuralsystem of a building can be given great prominence and be made to form an important partof the architectural vocabulary (Fig. 1.3). At theother extreme, its presence can be visuallyplayed down with the structural elementscontributing little to the appearance of thebuilding (Fig. 1.4). Between these extremes liesan infinite variety of possibilities (see Section2.2). In all cases, however, the structure, byvirtue of the significant volume which itoccupies in a building, affects its visual character to some extent and it does so even if it isnot directly visible. No matter how the structure is treated visually, however, the need fortechnical requirements to be satisfied mustalways be acknowledged. Structural constraints
Structure and architectureFig. 1.3 HongkongBankHeadquarters, Hong Kong,1979-84. Foster Associates,architects. The structure ofthis building is expressedprominently both on theexterior and in the interior.It contributes directly aswell as indirectly to theappearance of the building.[Photo: Ian Lambot.Copyright: Foster &Partners ]Fig. 1.4 Staatsgalerie,Stuttgart, Germany,1980-83, lames Stirling,architect. This building hasa reinforced concrete structure and non-structuralcladding. Although thestructure plays a vital rolein the creation of thecomplex overall form it isnot a significant element inthe visual vocabulary.[Photo: P. Macdonald]
Structural Design for Architecturetherefore exert a significant influence, overt orhidden, on the final planning of buildings.This book is concerned with the programmatic aspects of the relationship betweenarchitecture and structure. Chapter 2, in particular, deals with the process by which theform and general arrangement of structures forbuildings are determined - with the design ofarchitectural structures, in other words.Information on basic forms of structure - therange of structural possibilities - is essentialto the success of this process; this is providedin subsequent chapters which deal separatelywith the four principal structural materials ofsteel, reinforced concrete, masonry and timber.More general aspects of the topic are reviewedbriefly here.1.2 Structural requirements4The principal forms of loading to which buildings are subjected are gravitational loads, windpressure loads and inertial loads caused byseismic activity. Gravitational loads, which arecaused by the weight of the building itself andof its contents, act vertically downwards; windand seismic loads have significant horizontalcomponents but can also act vertically. Toperform satisfactorily a structure must becapable of achieving a stable state of staticequilibrium in response to all of these loads to load from any direction, in other words. Thisis the primary requirement; the form andgeneral arrangement of a structure must besuch as to make this possible.The distinction between the requirementsfor stability and equilibrium is an importantone and the basic principles are illustrated inFig. 1.5. Equilibrium occurs when the reactionsat the foundations of a structure exactlybalance and counteract the applied load; if itwere not in equilibrium the structure wouldchange its position in response to the load.Stability is concerned with the ability of astructural arrangement which is in equilibriumto accommodate small disturbances withoutsuffering a major change of shape. The first ofthe beam/column frameworks in Fig. 1.5 is in aFig. 1.5 The first of the frameworks here is capable ofachieving equilibrium under the loading shown but isunstable. The insertion of the diagonal element in thesecond framework renders it capable of achieving stableequilibrium.state of static equilibrium but is not stable andwill collapse if subjected to a small lateraldisplacement. The insertion of a diagonalbracing element in the second frameworkprevents this and renders the system stable.Most structural arrangements require bracingfor stability and the devising of bracingsystems is an important aspect of structuraldesign.As the simple diagrammatic structure in Fig.1.6 illustrates, the structural elements of abuilding provide the link between the appliedloads and the foundation reactions in orderthat equilibrium can be achieved. To be effective the elements must be of adequatestrength. The strength of an element dependson the strength of the constituent material andthe area and shape of its cross-section. Thestronger the material and the larger the crosssection the stronger will be the element. It ispossible to produce a strong element eventhough the constituent material is weak byspecifying a very large cross-section.In the case of a particular structure, once therequirements for stability and equilibrium havebeen met, the provision of elements withadequate strength is a matter firstly of determining the magnitudes of the internal forceswhich will occur in the elements when the peakload is applied to the structure. Secondly, astructural material of known strength must beselected and thirdly, the sizes and shapes ofcross-sections must be chosen such that eachelement can safely carry the internal forcewhich the load will generate. Calculations are
Structure and architectureNon-loadbearingpartition wallan essential aspect of this process and arerequired both to determine the magnitudes ofthe forces in the individual elements - anactivity known as structural analysis - and thento calculate the required sizes of the elementcross-sections.A fourth property which a structure mustpossess, in addition to the requirements ofequilibrium, stability, and strength, isadequate rigidity. All structural materialsdeform in response to load and it is necessarythat the overall deflection of a structure shouldnot be excessive. As with strength, the rigidityof the structure depends on the properties ofthe material and the sizes of the crosssections, which must be large enough toensure that excessive deflection does notoccur. Like strength, rigidity is checked andcontrolled through the medium of calculations.To summarise, the basic requirements of thestructure (the firmness element of the archi-Fig. 1.6 Force system in abuilding's structure. The gravitational load on the roof isconducted, via the roof trussand the walls, to the foundations where it is balanced byreactions from the substrata.The same is true of loadsimposed on the floors whichare transmitted by the floorstructural elements and wallsto the foundations. The rooftruss, wall and floor elementsmust be strong enough tocarry the internal forces generated by the load.tectural shopping list of 'firmness', 'commodity' and 'delight') are the ability to achieveequilibrium under all possible load conditions,geometric stability, adequate strength andadequate rigidity. Equilibrium requires that thestructural elements be properly configured,stability is ensured by the provision of abracing system; and adequate strength andrigidity are provided by the specification ofstructural elements which are of sufficient size,given the strengths of the constituentmaterials.1.3 Structure types1.3.1 Post-and-beam structuresMost architectural structures are of the postand-beam type and consist of horizontalspanning elements supported on verticalcolumns or walls. A characteristic of this type5
Structural Design for ArchitectureFig. 1.7 Steel skeletonframework. In this arrangement, which is typical of amulti-storey steel-framestructure, concrete floorslabs are supported by agrid of steel beams whichis in turn supported byslender steel columns.These elements form thestructural carcass of thebuilding. External wallsand internal partitions arenon-structural and can bearranged to suit planningand aesthetic requirements.of structure is that the horizontal elements aresubjected to bending-type internal forcesunder the action of gravitational load(normally the primary load on an architecturalstructure). This has two consequences. Firstly,it requires that the structural material becapable of resisting both tension and compression (e.g. steel, reinfor
5.1 Introduction 147 5.2 The architecture of masonry - factors which affect the decision to use masonry as a structural material 147 5.3 The basic forms of masonry structures 164 6 Timber structures 179 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Timber and architecture 180 6.3 The material, its properties and characteristics 190 6.4 Properties of timber 192
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