THE ROLE OF THE PRESS IN DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY
THE ROLE OF THE PRESS INDEMOCRATIC SOCIETYSept 30 – Oct. 14
Standards for Evaluating Press Performance2Maintaining an adversarial relationship with those inpower; deterring corruption National security journalism and the erosion of theFirst Amendment; evolution of wartime coverageCreating a “public sphere” and a market for publicaffairs information (informed citizens) Does a free press deliver meaningful information onissues of the day?The special case of money and elections The appearance of corruption
4Richard Nixonannounceshis resignationin 1974.Friday, August 9, 1974; Page A01, Washington PostRichard Milhous Nixon announced last night that he willresign as the 37th President of the United States at noontoday.Vice President Gerald R. Ford of Michigan will take theoath as the new President at noon to complete theremaining 2 1/2 years of Mr. Nixon's term.After two years of bitter public debate over theWatergate scandals, President Nixon bowed to pressuresfrom the public and leaders of his party to become thefirst President in American history to resign.
Overview5In democracies, a free press isexpected to maintain an“adversarial” relationship withthose in power; news coverageas a deterrent to corruption
Outline (Sept. 30 – Oct 5)6Brief history of investigative journalism“Indexing” theory and press reliance on official sourcesNational security as an arena that compromises media’sindependence Battlefield coverage from Vietnam to the current eraNormative standards for assessing the monitoringperformance of the media – police patrols or fire alarmsThe special case of money and politics
7A Brief History of Investigative Journalism
Watergate: The Facts8Did the Washington Post bring downPresident Nixon?Almost all the information uncovered by Woodward andBernstein came from official sources mainly the FBIOther media outlets broke important stories and TVcoverage was more important in galvanizing public opinionThreat of impeachment was pivotal to Nixon’s resignation –role of party politics
Watergate: The Mythology9 One newspaper kept the pressure on, forcing the White Houseto engage in a cover upIndividual efforts of Woodward and Bernstein - “David andGoliath” story line promoted by the media and Hollywood“At its broadest, the myth of journalism in Watergate asserts thattwo young Washington Post reporters brought down thepresident of the United States. This is a myth of David andGoliath, of powerless individuals overturning an institution ofoverwhelming might. It is high noon in Washington, with twowhite-hatted young reporters at one end of the street and theblack-hatted president at the other, protected by his minions. Andthe good guys win. The press, truth its only weapon, saves theday."
Bottom Line: Multiple Explanations10“ everybody did Watergate and everybodywants credit for it. The fact is, an incrediblearray of powerful actors all converged onNixon at once – the FBI, prosecutors,congressional investigators, the judicial system.This included the media. It did not play theleading role, but it did play a role."
Pre-Watergate; the Muckraking Era11 High water mark of investigativejournalism associated with theprogressive movement, TR, and“trust busting” – NY Journal(Hearst) and NY World (Pulitzer)Sensationalistic coverage ofinequality, plight of farmers, lowwages, and child labor Regulatory agencies includingFederal Reserve Board, FTC, FDAcreated to battle abuses
Muckraking Magazines12
Journalism Set the Policy Agenda13“the list of reforms enacted between 1900 and1915 is an impressive one. The convict and penalsystems were reformed, a federal pure food actwas passed, child labor laws were enacted inseveral states, forest reserves were set aside, theNewlands Act made possible reclamation ofmillions of acres, eight hour laws for women, theprohibition on racetrack gambling, the dissolution ofthe Standard Oil and Tobacco ”
The Iran-Contra Scandal (1986)14Major effort by Reagan Administration to bypassCongress by secretly arming Nicaraguan “Contras” Congress had banned direct funding of the rebelsInitial plan was to sell weapons to Iran in exchangefor Iranian efforts to secure release of 7 Americansheld hostage in LebanonWeapons provided by Israel, then resupplied at nocost by the USProceeds from the sale then diverted to fund theContras
Where were the watchdogs?15Reagan acknowledged the arms sales in a nationallytelevised address, but claimed no direct knowledge14 officials in the Administration indicted, includingthe Secretary of Defense, and several convictedIt was not a US news organization, but small Lebanesemagazine that broke the storyDespite illegality of the Administration’s actions andthe involvement of high-level advisors to Reagan
The S&L Crisis16Hundreds of small savings and loaninstitutions went bankrupt in the early 1980sDue to combination of bad management and bad policyS&Ls typically had to pay higher interest to their depositorsthan they were making on their mortgage investmentsThe cost of bailing out the Federal Savings and LoanInsurance Corporation (FSLIC), which insured the deposits infailed S&Ls, exceeded 200 billion
Absence of News Attention17S&L crisis was broken by unknown journalists writing for local papersor trade publicationsMainstream press responded only after Congressscheduled hearingsMore generally, business news reporters are heavilydependent on management sources
Absence of News Attention18In The Watchdog that Didn’t Bark, mediacritic Dean Starkman suggests thatderegulation and the importance of stockfunds to middle class retirees madebusiness reporters more interested incorporate strategy and “access”reporting – making the news a guide toinvestors
The Weakening of Investigative Journalism19Beginning in the late 1970s, newsorganizations faced economic pressuresand increased competition for marketshareThis led to “softening” of the news (Zaller– Bennett debate)Investigative reporting requires a majorinvestment and audience response isuncertain - editors and publishers becamerisk averse
Closeness to Sources20 Indexing system makes reporters especially close toofficial sources who are unlikely to disclose“scandalous” materialNYT is the first newspaper to pull out of the annualWhite House press dinner:“It did not feel like the right message to be sendingto our readers to really be, you know, to be in sucha chummy sort of festive setting with the peoplewe’re supposed to be covering.”
21“Indexing” TheoryPress reliance on official sources
“Indexing” Theory: News as a Reflection ofElite Opinion22When elites disagree,journalists represent thedifferences in opinionGreaterdisagreement andcompetition ofproposals in the areaof domestic policyWhen there is elite consensus,journalists represent only thatperspectiveInternational andnational securityarena less transparentand competitiveExecutive branchdomination overlegislature andjudiciary
Limits on Press Access23National security Relatively “open” information policies in the domestic arenaversus “closed” (lack of access) policy in case of nationalsecurityThe legacy of Vietnam “Silence of the critics”Case Study From Vietnam, Grenada, Operation Desert Storm to Iraqcoverage
Zaller-Chiu Study of Indexing24Press coverage during foreign policy and military “crises” involving possibleor actual use of U.S. military forceGather news data and data on Congressional opinion for 39 casesbetween 1945 and 1991Interested in relationship between views expressed in Congress (elite opinion)and slant represented in news reportsSlant measured as “hawkish” vs. “dovish”i.e. supportive of or opposed to use of force
Methodology, Data25Bennett’s 1990study of presscoverageCase of US policytoward Nicaraguain the 1980sMainstream mediareflected positionsof the ReaganAdministration Hawkish
Methodology, Data (cont.)26Zaller and Chiu examinenews reports in Timeand Newsweek dealingwith relevant crisesEach paragraph readby coders and classifiedas hawkish or dovish
Methods (cont.)27For each crisis, media hawkishness measured as(# of hawkish paras - # of dovish paras ) / ( # ofhawkish paras dovish paras neutral paras )Parallel analysis of floor speeches and roll callvotes--classify Congressional opinion as hawkish ordovishCorrelation between Congressional and mediaslant was .63
Does the Press Lead or Follow?28Separate analysis ofSenate and HousespeechesResults of AnalysisSenators thought to be lessdependent upon publicopinionShow no difference in thestrength of the correlation forSenate and House opinionMedia coverage might beleading rather than followingopinions expressed by Housemembers concerned aboutreelectionLends credence to the ideathat it is the press followingelite opinion ( and not theother way around) Press not entirely a “mouthpiece” Journalists are especially dovish for events seen as military setbacks (e.g. Tet)
Consequences of Indexing29Duringperiods offoreign policyor militarycrisis,significant“rally effect”behind theincumbentPresident inresponse tosupportivenews reports
30National security as an arena that limitsmedia’s independenceBattlefield coverage from Vietnam to the currentera
Vietnam: Autonomous Media31Major newsorganizations with news Accredited journalists givenrelatively free access tobureaus in Saigon,track down stories andstaffed by multiplecover battlefield eventscorrespondentsVoluntary, selfcensorship guidelines Coverage showed Americancasualties on a daily basis
Vietnam Reporting (Tet Offensive)32Viet Cong launched a major offensive in Jan. 1968which gave them temporary control of major areasof Saigon, Hue, and other areas
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Effects of Vietnam Coverage34Daily reports on course of the warProvided an impetus to the anti-warmovementHelped candidacy of anti-war candidateEugene McCarthyAs casualty rate increasedJohnson’s popularity fellMcCarthy ran a close second to LBJ in NHprimary leading RFK to enter the raceOn March 31, 1968 LBJ goes on national TV to announce that he will notseek re-election
Grenada: Access Denied35Grenada,1983ReaganAdministrationPress denied access towar zone (navalblockade)Claims communist threat(Cuban advisors)Reporters forced todepend on officialbriefingsClaims possibility ofAmerican students beingtaken hostageSeveral key claims turn out tobe false (e.g. airportexpansion)
Grenada (cont.)36“When you are in a situation where your primarysource of information is the United Statesgovernment and where, for three days, basicallyyour only source of information except Radio Cubais the Pentagon, you are totally at their mercy andyou have to make an assumption that the U.S.government is telling the truth. You report thatCasper Weinberger, then the Secretary ofDefense, says ‘the fighting was heaviest here,’ orWeinberger says ‘the barracks are under siege.’Well, you believe it. What are you going to do?You report what he says.”
From Grenada to Iraq37Daily briefings as mainsource of newsPool reports subjectto censorship Incorporation of a/v intoofficial briefings (e.g.accuracy of “smart” bombs) Hussein as a modern-dayHitler and “atrocities” ofIraqi troops Body bags, coffinsReportersrestricted to noncombat zonesConfirmation ofpredefined “story lines”PoolSystemEmbeddingcorrespondents withcoalition forces Getting reporters to actas official spokespersons
Desert Storm and Press Briefings38
The Iraq War; from briefings to embeddedcorrespondents39
The Iraq War; from briefings to embeddedcorrespondents40
More Iraq Coverage: “Embedded”Reports41
The End of Investigative Journalism?42 Market pressures and cost-cutting“Pack journalism” – if market leaders stop doing it,so will everybody elseReliance on official sources and indexing theoryNational security news as pro-regime in slant
The Post-War Verdict of the NYT43“Some critics of our coverage during that time havefocused blame on individual reporters. Our examination,however, indicates that the problem was morecomplicated. Editors at several levels who should havebeen challenging reporters and pressing for moreskepticism were perhaps too intent on rushing scoops intothe paper. Accounts of Iraqi defectors were not alwaysweighed against their strong desire to have SaddamHussein ousted. Articles based on dire claims about Iraqtended to get prominent display, while follow-up articlesthat called the original ones into question were sometimesburied. In some cases, there was no follow-up at all.”
44ProPublica: a Revival ofInvestigative Journalism?Nonprofit news organization dedicatedto investigative, public service journalismEndowed generously by Herbert M. and Marion SandlerHas 30 million and has already developed the prestigeto have an impact (Pulitzers in 2010 and 2011)Investigative reports on police abuses in aftermath of Katrinaand payments to doctors by pharmaceutical companies
45Normative standards for assessing themonitoring performance of the media
Normative Standards for Assessing thePerformance of the Media46“Can citizens who get most of their public affairsinformation from the new soft news dischargethe duties of citizenship?”The “full news standard” versus “burglar alarm”standard (Zaller) FNS media should provide citizens with basicinformation on the issues of the day thusallowing citizens to hold elected officialsaccountable By this standard, the media perform poorly; softnews and horse race journalism dominate
Changes in Civic NormsPartisan Press47As journalism movedtoward “objectivity,”the citizen was nolonger the exuberantpartisan, but adetached independentinterested insubstantive news(exuberance may beon the rise today)Objective PressIn the era of thepartisan press,citizens behaved as“exuberantpartisans” cheeringon their team
Partisan Press as Cheerleader48 “ANOTHER DEMOCRATIC SHAM” ran a typical heading in theRepublican New York Tribune in 1880. Democratic papers tookthe same tack. In 1876, the New York World could head anews story about a Republican leader “HOW BLAINE KEEPSUP HIS LYING STATEMENTS.” . .“In this period, then, politics was organized by parties; thegood citizen was a good partisan; and a good newspaperwas one that presented a fare of reliable partisanship to apartisan audience.” Zaller, p. 113
Is the Ideal of the Monitorial Citizen Realistic?49Zaller argues it is unrealistic Great majority of Americans are partisan and the more informed citizensare the most partisanThe demand for serious news is non-existent If people wanted substantive news, that is what market-oriented mediawould deliverGiven citizens’ news preferences, Zaller’s solution proposesthat the media force citizens to pay attention when majorproblems face the country – distinction between burglaralarms and police patrols e.g. the collapse of the banking system in 2008
Zaller’s Argument re Soft News50 “theidea is to call attention to matters requiring urgentattention, and to do so in excited and noisy tones” Educationalvalue of soft news as in the Murphy Brownepisode illustrating the divide between the parties over“family values” Issue became front-page news during the 1992presidential campaign; Republicans hoped that moralvalues would replace economy as the issue of the day
Bennett’s Response51Market-based journalism emphasizes “scandals”on a regular basis On matters of little national significance (e.g. the private livesof elected officials and celebrities)Unlike the world of law enforcement, wherefalse alarms are discouraged No such corrective mechanism applies to news coverageCynical coverage of elected officials and thedisplacement of descriptive journalism by“interpretive” journalism has turned off citizens Shrinking sound bite
52The special case of money and politics
Campaign Finance and the Appearanceof Corruption53The possibility of corruption – either real or only perceived– has been a major issue in the development of UScampaign finance lawMulti-million dollarcampaigns financed byindividuals and groupsRaisespossibility thatelectedofficials canbe “bought”Raises possibilitythat they willprovide favorsfor large donorsEfforts to regulatecampaign financeLimitingamount ofmoneyindividualscan donateLimiting totalamountcandidatescan spend
Donald Trump on “bought” politicians54 “I will tell you that our system is broken,” Trump saidon stage in Thursday's GOP candidates' debate. “Igave to many people before this -- before twomonths ago I was a businessman. I give toeverybody. When they call, I give. And you knowwhat, when I need something from them two yearslater, three years later, I call them. They are therefor me. That's a broken system.”
Increasing Cost of Running for Office(Presidential Election Only)55Note theincreased rateat whichspendingincreases fromthe 0,000,0001,000,000,000500,000,00001980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012
Brief History of CF Law56Buckley v. Valeo (1976)Supreme Court defined ground rules fordetermining when campaign finance limits areacceptable under the First Amendment’s right offree speech and associationContribution limits could be justified by thegovernment’s interests in preventing either“corruption” or the “appearance of corruption.”
Buckley v. Valeo57“Of almost equal concern as the danger of actual quid proquo arrangements is the impact of the appearance ofcorruption stemming from public awareness of theopportunities for abuse inherent in a regime of largeindividual financial contributions.”Key distinction between contributions and expenditures
Narrowing the Definition of Corruption58Since Buckley, asthe number ofconservatives onthe Supreme Courthas increasedIn McCutcheon vFEC, theappearance ofcorruption isdismissed as abasis for regulation the definition of corruption as a basis forregulation has been narrowed (CitizensUnited v FEC (2010) – prohibition oncorporations spending on behalf ofparties/candidates unconstitutional replaced with “preventing the appearance ofquid pro quo corruption, [and therefore] theGovernment may not seek to limit theappearance of mere influence or access.”Quid pro quo corruption a direct exchange of anofficial act for money. “The hallmark of corruption is thefinancial quid pro quo: dollars for political favors.”
Summary59(1) Free press expected to keep elected officialshonest(2) Does the US media live up to this expectation?(3) Standards for evaluating press performance– full news standard versus burglar alarms(4) Campaign finance and the appearance ofcorruption Demise of investigative journalism, dependence on officialsources and rise of the national security state
Journalism Set the Policy Agenda 13 “the list of reforms enacted between 1900 and 1915 is an impressive one. The convict and penal systems were reformed, a federal pure food act was passed, child labor laws were enacted in several states, forest reserves were set aside, the Newlands Act made possible reclamation of
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Le genou de Lucy. Odile Jacob. 1999. Coppens Y. Pré-textes. L’homme préhistorique en morceaux. Eds Odile Jacob. 2011. Costentin J., Delaveau P. Café, thé, chocolat, les bons effets sur le cerveau et pour le corps. Editions Odile Jacob. 2010. 3 Crawford M., Marsh D. The driving force : food in human evolution and the future.
