School Counselor Preparation In Urban Settings.
DOCUMENT RESUMECG 028 358ED 418 343AUTHORTITLEPUB DATENOTEPUB TYPEEDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORSIDENTIFIERSHolcomb-McCoy, Cheryl C.School Counselor Preparation in Urban Settings.1998-00-0028p.Information Analyses (070)Non-Classroom (055)GuidesMF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.Counselor Educators; Counselor Qualifications; *CounselorTraining; Elementary Secondary Education; Pupil PersonnelServices; *School Counseling; School Counselors; *UrbanProblems; *Urban SchoolsCouncil for Accred of Counsel and Relat Educ ProgABSTRACTThis paper provides information regarding the particularfactors that influence the work of urban school counselors, reviews theschool counseling training standards set forth by the Council forAccreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), andexplores the additional training needs of urban school counselors. Studentdiversity, a lack of resources, poverty, family issues, violence, and highdrop-out rates characterize counseling concerns in urban schools. Urbanschool counseling programs must include studies that provide students with anunderstanding of the coordination of counseling to the total schoolcommunity, and the leadership skills needed to initiate collaborative effortswith other school personnel, outside agencies, and businesses. Urbancounselors must have skills in family development and family intervention,dealing with violence, and career counseling. Despite the usefulness ofCACREP standards in preparing school counselors, counselor educators shouldbegin exploring and discussing the flexibility of the standards so that urbanschool counselor training needs are addressed. Counselor educators who workin programs that can be characterized as predominately urban must develop andimplement preparation models that can account for the unique relationshipsand circumstances found in urban schools. Suggestions for training urbanschool counselors are given. ***********************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original ***************************************
School Counselor Preparation 1Running head: SCHOOL COUNSELOR PREPARATIONSchool Counselor Preparation in Urban SettingsCheryl C. Holcomb-McCoyBrooklyn College of the City University of New YorkCheryl C. Holcomb-McCoy is an Assistant Professor and Program Headof the Guidance and Counseling Program at Brooklyn College of theCity University of New York.BESTW'OCO00000C\I1 PYU.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and ImprovementAVAILABLE"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BYEDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC).cc\0 This document has been reproduced eftreceived from the person or organizationOriginating it.Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction Qualitye Points otview or opinions stated in this docu-nest do not necessarily represent MetalOE RI position or policy2TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."t
School Counselor Preparation 2School Counselor Preparation in Urban SettingsAbstractThis article includes a discussion of particular factors (e.g.,poverty, lack of resources) that influence the work of urban schoolcounselors. The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and RelatedEducational Programs (CACREP) training standards for schoolcounselors are reviewed. And lastly, suggestions for training urbanschool counselors are given.
School Counselor Preparation 3School Counselor Preparation in Urban SettingsAlthough there has been literature written about schoolcounseling in rural areas (Allen & James, 1990; Lee, 1984; Saba, 1991),very little has been written about urban school counseling. As noted inthe literature, urban educators have distinct obstacles that aredistinguishable from those of their suburban counterparts (Bombaugh,1995; Haberman & Rickards, 1990; Hughes & Clark, 1981). Largenumbers of poor and disadvantaged students, run-down buildings, poorattendance, illiteracy, high dropout rates, violence, and hopelessness arethe overwhelming reality of urban schools (Council of the Great CitySchools, 1987; Miller, 1992; Oakes, 1987; Repetto, 1990). Clearly, theseissues must be considered and addressed in structuring successful urbanschool counseling training programs.The purpose of this article, therefore, is three-fold: one, to provideinformation regarding the particular factors that influence the work ofurban school counselors; two, to review the school counseling trainingstandards set forth by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling andRelated Educational Programs (CACREP) and three, to explore theadditional training needs of urban school counselors. The author doesnot propose to change the CACREP standards but to begin exploring anddiscussing the flexibility of the standards so that urban school counselortraining needs are addressed.
School Counselor Preparation 4For the purpose of this article, the terms "urban" and "city" areused to describe any large and relatively dense concentration ofpopulation where the inhabitants are engaged primarily innonagricultural occupations (Academic American Encyclopedia, 1990).The density of people differentiates urban communities from suburbanand rural communities. For instance, New York City, Los Angeles, andChicago each have populations that exceed two million people (U. S.Census Bureau, 1995). Metropolitan areas that include major cities (e.g.,Washington, DC-MD-VA, Miami-Fort Lauderdale) consist of populationsranging from three to 19 million (U. S. Census Bureau, 1995). Themagnitude of people in these areas make urban living distinctive andunique.Factors that Influence Urban School CounselingThe following factors-- diversity of students, lack of resources,poverty, family issues, violence, and high drop-out rates-- significantlyimpact counseling in urban schools.Diversity of StudentsIn major cities, students from ethnic minority groups comprise thehighest percentage of public school enrollments (Hacker, 1992). Urban5
School Counselor Preparation 5schools may be culturally diverse or they may be homogeneous-consisting of predominately Black and Latino students (King & Bey,1995).Also, at the present time the rates of immigration are the largestin U.S. history and major cities encounter the largest influx ofimmigrants (U. S. Department of Justice, 1994). Between 2.1 and 2.7million immigrant children are presently in the U.S. and most of thesechildren and their families tend to have limited support systems(Kopala, Esquivel & Baptiste, 1994). Numerous urban school districtshave incorporated special incentives to recruit bilingual counselorsbecause of the increasing number of non-English speaking students.(G.Elizalde-Utnick, personal communication, September 4, 1997).Lack of ResourcesInadequate resources is characteristic of urban schools (Kozol,1991). Dilapidated and substandard facilities (Miller, 1992), difficultyrecruiting and retaining teachers (Natriello & Zumwalt, 1993), highlevels of teacher stress (Freiberg, Zbikowski, & Ganser, 1994), and anoverwhelming need for highly trained and specialized professionals(Stallings, 1992) are indicative of urban school environments. Accordingto Colbert and Wolff (1993), "some inner schools have a teacher turnoverrate as high as 50% and a paucity of certified teachers willing to fill theirvacancies, especially in math, science, and bilingual education." In New6
School Counselor Preparation 6York City, for instance, 57% of the new teachers in 1992 were unlicensedand students had a 50% chance of being taught by a licensed science ormath teacher. As a result of the lack of trained and experienced teachers,urban school counselors regularly serve as teacher consultants or betteryet, teacher trainers. In addition, when teachers lack experience andtraining in classroom management skills, the rate of student behavioralconcerns rise which consequently result in increased counselor referrals.PovertyUrban schools experience challenges related to such societal ills aspoverty and unemployment. High rates of unemployment in urbanareas and the inequitable number of unemployed ethnic minorities iswell-documented (Wilson, 1987; Winters, 1993). With urban housingcosts accelerating three times faster than incomes, parents in urbansettings range from those unable to provide adequate shelter, food, andclothing for their offspring to the working poor, who hold two to threejobs and still are unable to make ends meet. In addition, urban youthand particularly ethnic minority youth experience higherunemployment rates than their nonurban counterparts (Repetto, 1990).Consequently, urban school counselors have become increasinglyinterested in new and innovative school-to-work programs, careerdevelopment activities that are culturally appropriate, and job7
School Counselor Preparation 7preparation skillsFamily IssuesUrban areas are evidencing increases in single parent families,teen parents, and homeless families. According to Boyd - Franklin (1989)single-parent families have become the norm, and single teenagemothers are rapidly on the rise in urban areas. In lower socioeconomicurban Black communities, the rate of teenage pregnancy is twice that ofWhite teenagers (Children's Defense Fund, 1988). The National SchoolBoards Association (1989) found that most urban school districts haveongoing programs for pregnant and parenting students.The rising poverty rate and the decrease in availability of lowincome housing units has caused a tremendous increase in the number ofhomeless families (McChesney, 1992). Kondratas (1991) indicated thatover 75% of the homeless families in the United States are of AfricanAmerican, Native American, or Hispanic descent. School counselors inurban settings are now encountering more students with personal,social, and academic difficulties as a result of being homeless (Daniels,1992; Walsh & Buckley, 1994).ViolenceAlthough urban areas appear to be besieged by violence, theFederal Bureau of Investigation (FBI, 1994) reported that the Crime Index
School Counselor Preparation 8in the nation's cities has decreased. The greatest decline was recorded incities with populations of more than one million. Nevertheless, the FBI(1994) reported that violent crime committed by urban youth is on theincrease. School officials in major cities indicate that gang violence isstill played out on school property and in many classrooms (Cohen,Weiss, Mulvey, & Dearwater, 1994). In a study where urban adolescentswere asked if crime was a big problem in their schools, 19% of the youthperceived this to be a "very big problem" (Maguire & Pastore, 1994).As a result of the increase in violence in schools, urban school districtsare instituting sophisticated security measures and holding workshopsto train school personnel to respond to the threat of violence in theschool. School counselors are frequently asked to develop andimplement staff development activities focused on the topic of youthviolence.High Drop-Out RatesKaufman and Frase (1990) found that students residing in majorcities were more likely to drop out than were students in nonurbanschools. In many urban schools, approximately half of all studentsentering the ninth grade fail to graduate four years later (Gruskin,Campbell, & Pau lu, 1987). As a result of the increasing number ofstudents choosing to drop out, many school districts have formed special9
School Counselor Preparation 9departments and task forces to work with students who are at risk ofdropping out (National School Board Association, 1989). In New YorkCity, for instance, many school counselors are hired to specifically workwith students at-risk of dropping out of school.CACREP School Counseling Curricular ExperiencesIn the case of counselor education, CACREP is the accreditationbody for master's level school counseling programs (Altekreuse &Wittmer, 1991; Sweeney, 1992). As of March 1993, only 74 of the 343institutions offering a master's degree in school counseling wereapproved by CACREP (Hollis & Wantz, 1993). Hence, the majority ofschool counselors urban, suburban and rural are not receivingconsistent training.The CACREP standards (1994) for training school counselorsconsists of common core curricular experiences and additional curricularexperiences and skills specifically designed for school counselingprograms. These additional curricular experiences include four sections:Foundations of School Counseling, Contextual Dimensions, Knowledgeand Skills for the Practice of School Counseling, and Clinical Instruction.For instance, the Foundations of School Counseling (CACREP) sectionconsists of studies that include the following:1.history, philosophy, and trends in school counseling;10
School Counselor Preparation 102.role and function of the school counselor in conjunctionwith the roles of other professional and support personnelin the school;3.knowledge of the school setting and curriculum;4.ethical standards and guidelines of the American SchoolCounselor Association (ASCA);5.policies, laws, and legislation relevant to schoolcounseling; and6.implications of sociocultural, demographic, and lifestylediversity relevant to school counseling (p. 75).The Contextual Dimensions section of the CACREP (1994) schoolcounseling standards consists of studies that "provide an understandingof the coordination of counseling program components as they relate tothe total community (p. 75)." The Knowledge and Skills for the Practiceof School Counseling section is divided into three subsections: ProgramDevelopment, Implementation and Evaluation, Counseling andGuidance, and Consultation. These three subsections require studiesthat include individual and group counseling, group guidanceapproaches, developmental approaches to assist students at points ofeducational transition, methods of consulting with parents, teachers, andother school personnel, approaches to peer helper programs, andmethods of enhancing teamwork within the school community.11
School Counselor Preparation 11The final section, Clinical Instruction requires that "studentsperform under the supervision of a certified school counselor, a varietyof activities that a regular employed school counselor would be expectedto perform (p. 76 )." This direct service might include individualcounseling, group work, developmental classroom guidance andconsultation. Appendix includes the full text of the curricularexperiences.Urban School Counseling Training ProgramsAs previously stated, all school counselors benefit from theCACREP curricular experiences. Nonetheless, potential urban schoolcounselors have special training needs. Based on these needs, counseloreducators need to begin discourse regarding the flexibility of ourexisting standards to include the following crucial areas.Foundations of School CounselingThree inclusions are warranted in the Foundations of SchoolCounseling section. Firstly, urban school counseling programs shouldhave studies that address urban education issues and problems. Nolonger should school counseling training programs focus on the"traditional" school setting and curriculum; rather urban programsshould study urban education and issues associated with living in acomplex urban environment. Most importantly, counselors must bemindful to not confuse the terms diverse, minority, of color, urban, or poor12
School Counselor Preparation 12and avoid pejorative or deficit associations with these terms (King &Bey, 1995).Secondly, urban school counseling training programs must studymulticultural issues extensively. Considering the ethnic make-up ofurban areas, it is imperative that school counselor trainees understandhow culture impacts every aspect of their students' development. Inaddition, given the large numbers of immigrants in many major cities,urban school counselors should understand the acculturation process.Acculturation, the process of adapting to the rules and behavioralcharacteristics of another group of people, presents special challenges toimmigrant persons (Altaribba, 1993; Smart & Smart, 1995). Urban schoolcounselors greatly benefit from coursework that addresses facilitatingthe acculturative process of immigrant students (Kopala et al., 1994).Thirdly, based on the high attrition rates of teachers, urbancounselors must not only understand how to support teachers'professional development but also play a role in overseeing newteachers' entry and retention in the profession. Bey (1990) suggested thatmentoring relationships in urban school districts are needed for teacherswho may have been poorly prepared as well as to contribute to teachers'development of resilience to survive the routines and the frustrations ofurban teaching.13
School Counselor Preparation 13Contextual Dimensions: School CounselingUrban school counseling programs must include studies thatprovide students with an understanding of the coordination ofcounseling to the total school community, and the leadership skillsneeded to initiate collaborative efforts with other school personnel,outside agencies, and businesses. McMullan and Snyder (1987)concluded that informal and formal partnerships between urban publicschools and outside agencies strengthened community interest ineducation and support for special programs for economicallydisadvantaged and academically at-risk youth.Knowledge and Skills for the Practice of School CounselingBecause of the high incidence of teenage pregnancy, single parentfamilies, and homeless families, it is imperative that urban schoolcounselors receive training in the area of family development andfamily intervention strategies. Studies in this area should includetheories of family counseling, characteristics of ethnically diverse urbanfamilies, and the skills necessary to develop home-school collaborationprograms. Winters (1993) concluded that schools in disadvantaged urbanareas need to "tap' the potential and resources of their students' parents.Urban counselors are in an ideal position to lead the mission ofinvolving parents in the education of their children. With the exceptionof Head Start programs, most educational programs do not focus on14
School Counselor Preparation 14maximizing opportunities for the development of families and children.Recently however, numerous inner-city schools have developed parentinvolvement programs (e.g., Corner, 1986; Marriott, 1990). Also, manyFederal and local programs focused on the achievement of urban anddisadvantaged students mandate that a parent involvement componentbe included (Yates, 1993). Simply put, urban counselors must have theskills and knowledge to develop programs that support and encouragefamilies to participate in the education of their children.In addition to family intervention skills, urban counselors musthave the skills to counsel and assist youngsters with possible emotionaldisorders and dysfunctional behavior. The increasing violence andaggressive behavior among adolescents has presented a challenge forurban educators. Urban counselors must have the skills to work withtroubled youth and also to provide treatment and prevention for theseyoungsters. In response to the dramatically increased level of urbanviolence, urban school counselors are being asked to organize andparticipate on Crisis Response Teams. Seltzer (1992) reported that crisisteams are critical for urban children following traumatic incidents intheir schools or in their communities. Specific techniques in crisis teamdevelopment should be provided within urban school counselingtraining programs.Urban school counseling programs must also provide studies thataJ
School Counselor Preparation 15include innovative approaches to assist students and parents make careerdecisions. Considering the high unemployment rates of ethnic minorityyouth, urban counselors need the skills and knowledge to address thecareer development o
School Counselor Preparation 1. Running head: SCHOOL COUNSELOR PREPARATION. School Counselor Preparation in Urban Settings. Cheryl C. Holcomb-McCoy. Brooklyn College of the City University of New York. Cheryl C. Holcomb-McCoy is an Assistant Professor and Program Head. of the Guidance and Counseling Program at Brooklyn College of the
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