The Image Of Confucius In Ezra Pound's 'Chinese Cantos .
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)ISSN (Online): 2319-7064Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 Impact Factor (2015): 6.391The Image of Confucius in Ezra Pound's "ChineseCantos" (Cantos LII - LXI)Alireza FarahbakhshAssociate Professor In English Literature, University Of Guilan, IranAbstract: The purpose of the present paper is to take a close look at the image Ezra Pound portrays of Confucius in his ChineseCantos (cantos LII - LXI), which he wrote in the 1930s. Focusing on Confucius’s ideason culture and economy, it studies Pound’sreasons for his approval or disapproval of a number of Chinese emperors. The main concern of the paper is to realise how Confucius ispictured in the Chinese Cantos and what are the implications of his portrayal. The paper starts with a brief digest of Pound's views oneconomy, culture, banking systems, Douglas’s Social Credit Theory, and war and proceedsto observe Confucian recommendationsregarding peace and economic solidity in the selected cantos. The article shows that through condemning inefficient Chinese emperorsand praising authoritative and competent rulers, Pound, in fact, is voicing his advocacy not only for the Chinese philosopher, but alsofor Italian fascism. In other words, in his Chinese Cantos, Pound extols Confucian views on agriculture, order, and administration withan eye on a leader he deemed to be the modern version of Confucius –Benito Mussolini.Keywords: Culture, Economy, Social Credit Theory, Ideal Administration, Pound‟sChinese Cantos1. IntroductionMost of Pound‟scantos were written between 1915 and1962, although much of the early work was abandoned andthe early cantos, as finally published, date from 1922onwards. This modern epic is a book-length work, widelyconsidered to present formidable difficulties to the reader.Strong claims have been made for it as one of the mostsignificant works of modernist poetry of the twentiethcentury. Despite Pound‟s centralityin the modernistliterature and the tremendous influence he exerted on hiscontemporary as well as future writers, in comparison withother men of letters of the early 20th century, he has ratherbeen unpopular. Hugh Kenner, the critic who advanced anunderstanding of Pound‟swork with his The Poetry of EzraPound, has asserted that “thereis no great contemporarywriter who is less read than Ezra Pound”(1985, 16). CarrollF. Terrell attributes the causes of Pound‟sunpopularity andthe cold reception of his Cantos to his support for fascism,late arrival of literary criticism on The Cantos, and thedifficulty of the text itself (1993, ix).The content of the Cantos stretches out far and wide, inpursuit of appropriate models of language, thought, andconduct, taking in, among many others, the Provencal andearly Italian poets, founders of modes of government andcodes of behaviour like Confucius and Jefferson, and someof the examples of primitive religious feeling recorded inOvid‟sMetamorphoses.”(1990, 79)World War I, as Pound saw it, had been caused by therivalries of international capitalists. He thought he had founda solution to the evils of unchecked capitalism, oneespecially favourable to the arts, in Confucius and in theSocial Credit theory of Major C. H. Douglas (a 20th centuryScottish engineer), who argued that a system of state creditcould increase purchasing power in the population at large,thus promoting creativity and removing power from bankersand financiers.According to Hugh Witemeyer, like Douglas, Pound cameto the conclusion that poverty and war result from theinequitable distribution of consumer purchasing power in acapitalist economy. What distorts an ideal distribution ofpurchasing power is the control of credit by private banks aswell as the charging of exorbitant interest or usury for theuse of credit; that is why there is no end to poverty and warif credit is not nationalised in the public interest (1969, 167).Attracted to Mussolini by his energy and his promises ofmonetary reform, Pound naïvely assumed that the Italianleader could be persuaded to put Douglas‟stheory intopractice. In his Ezra Pound: A Literary Life, Ira B. Nadelhas commented thatAs in Pound‟sprose writing, the themes of economics,politics, and culture are integral to its content. In his Cantos,Pound seems to be openly concerned not only withcontemporary cultural decay, but with the possible sourcesof cultural renewal. Pound‟spoetic imagination embracesmultifarious examples of humanity and multiple ideas oforder set by both eastern and western economists andpoliticians. There is a quest at the basis of Pound‟sCantoswhich, as Pound suggests now and again, is reminiscent ofOdysseus‟sten-year quest in search of his home. TheMuch of Mussolini‟sappeal lay in what Pound understoodsignificant difference, however, is that Pound‟sis questas his progressive monetary policies. His political instinctsperpetual search for civilisationunending; it involves man‟smade him a modern Jefferson, his economic intuitions anand order. In his Guide to Kulchur, Pound, as an activist andauthentic Social Credit practitioner who believed in thea reformer, insists on “ideaswhich are intended to go intotheory of the Just Price. Pound favored Mussolini‟splans foraction”or “toguide action and serve as rules (and/orcorporative assemblies, land reclamation and the remeasures) of conduct”(1952, 34). Concerning the questevaluation of currency. He also believed that Italian fascismmotif in Pound‟sCantos, Richard Gray has written:was committed to breaking the stranglehold of internationalVolume 5 Issue 6, June 2016www.ijsr.netLicensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)ISSN (Online): 2319-7064Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 Impact Factor (2015): 6.391banking which he held responsible for the creation of wars.(2004, 133-34)I went on plaguing Mr. BukosWho said finally: “Iam an orthodoxEconomist.”(1996, 108)In the same vein, William Sievert has written thatMussolini‟sstunning success in rebuilding Italy convincedIn the 1930s, in addition to Douglas‟sSocial Credit doctrine,Pound that fascist economic and political guidelines couldthe writings of Confucius exerted a long-lived impact oneventually result in welfare and peace and prevent thePound‟spolitical and economic thought. Pound had firstoutbreak of another international war (1965, 19). At first, thebecome interested in Chinese poetry through Ernestmain target of Pound‟sattacks is „usury,‟which he depictsFenollosa‟stranslations in the early 1910s, and for fifty(e.g. in Canto XLV –“WithUsura”)as an unnatural forceyears he continued to work as a student and a translator ofthat pollutes the creative instinct in humanity. CommentingChinese language. Tim Redman has explained thaton Pound‟s conception of „usury,‟ Kearns explains that“Pound is less concerned with quibbles over interest ratesDuring the period of the late 1930s and particularly duringthan with the perversion of use –of a man‟stime, of thethe Second World War, Pound became convinced that thefruits of the earth”(1989, 122). In his The Genesis of Ezraphilosophy of Confucius, along with the economic reform,Pound's Cantos, Ronald Bush asserts that Pound “condemnsoffered the best hope for an enduring and just social order,usury not simply because it interferes with an arand he worked to translate Confucius into Italian and publishtist‟shis work in Italy. (1991, 126)creation, but because it perverts the bounty and sustenanceof God‟sart, which is nature”(1976, 134). By about 1930,Pound held that Europe could flourish again underhowever, the usurers he condemns are usually Jewish, andConfucian cultural, moral, and economic principles. Poundhis language is vitiated by virulent anti-Semitism. In his TheGenealogy of Demons: Anti-Semitism, Fascism, and thewas fascinated by Confucius‟semphasis on harmony, peace,Myths of Ezra Pound, Robert Casillo argues thatsimplicity, and order. In canto XIII, Pound writes thataccording to Confucius (“Kung”),“Ifa man have not orderwithin him / He can not spread order about him”(1996, 58).While Pound is by no means hostile to all forms of money,In his diagnosis of the corruption of culture caused by usuryhe obsessively attacks that form of it - namely usury - whichand flawed banking systems, Pound returns to the values ofhe thinks the Jews created He believes implicitly that theConfucian thought. Confucius, who set about to promoteJews, for whom labor is “thecurse of Adam,”reject theprinciple of work. The usurers, in Pound‟s view, are againstsocial order from a rational and practical, rather than anthe natural increase of agriculture or of any productive work.abstract or idealistic, perspective, is one of the first names(1988, 216)one comes across in Pound‟sCantos. As early as the 1920s,Pound started his research into economics, and soon he wasattracted to such figures as Confucius, one of the firstIn Pound‟sview, the reasons for the outbreak of World Warmonetary thinkers in history, and Douglas. He held that theirI were to be sought in economic systems; therefore,prescriptions for reform could eventually rescue Europeeconomic reform was the only way to prevent a secondinternational war. That is why Pound occupied himself withfrom cultural and economic decay which was threatening itsstudying various economic books and essays. He readprosperity.Marx‟sKapital, too, and admired his passion for socialThe present paper aims to introduce Pound‟smonetaryjustice, but came to the conclusion that Marx never properlyphilosophy and trace Confucius‟seconomic views in aunderstood the nature of money. Obviously, Marx‟snumber of his 1930s cantos. It must be noted that Pound‟sclassless society had no place in Pound‟s fascist ideology.economic and political ideologies are so closelyDouglas, on the other hand, had rightly diagnosed theinterconnected that one cannot discuss either of themprincipal problems that caused economic setbacks.independently of the other. However, the present studyElaborating on Douglas‟seconomic standpoint in Thefocuses on economic and monetary rather than political andCambridge Companion to Ezra Pound, Ira B. Nadel writes:governmental issues. The selected cantos for the discussion“C. H. Douglas sought to correct the inequitableon Pound‟scriticism of contemporary banking systems anddistribution of wealth, purchasing power and credit. Thecontrol and exploitation of credit by private banks was forhis views on Confucius are cantos LII –LXI (better knownDouglas –and soon for Pound –the main culprit”(1999,as Chinese Cantos). Douglas‟seconomic views are alsotraced in these series of cantos since Pound has imbedded in10). The dominant and orthodox economic notion thatthem a number of references to his monetarymoney needed to be backed by gold, unlike Douglas‟srecommendations.premise, locked the industrial nations of his time in a fiercecompetition for foreign markets and made war an inevitablesolution. Criticising the contemporary orthodox monetary2. Discussionsystem in his canto XII, Pound writes:Cantos LII-LXI of the Chinese Cantos are based on the firstAnd C. H. [Douglas] said to the renowned Mr.eleven volumes of the twelve-volume Histoire generale deBukos:la Chine by Joseph-Anna-Marie de Moyriac de Mailla“Whatis the cause of the H[igh] C[ost] of(volume 12 being an index). De Mailla was a French JesuitL[iving]?”and Mr, Bukos,who spent 37 years in Peking and wrote his history there.The economist consulted of nations, said:The work was completed in 1730 but not published until“Lackof labour.”1777. De Mailla, as his view of Chinese history reflects, wasAnd there were two millions of men out of work very much an Enlightenment figure. Pound found ConfucianVolume 5 Issue 6, June 2016www.ijsr.netLicensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)ISSN (Online): 2319-7064Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 Impact Factor (2015): 6.391economic and political philosophy, with its emphasis onrational order, very much to his liking. He also disliked whathe saw as the superstitious pseudo-mysticism promulgatedby both Buddhists and Taoists for he was of the opinion thatits passivity posed a threat on pragmatic and rationalpolitics. Pound translated de Mailla's conception of Chinainto his own views on Christianity and on the need for astrong leader to address 20th century fiscal and culturalproblems –a figure like Mussolini. In an introductory noteto his Chinese Cantos, Pound states that the ideograms andother fragments of foreign language texts incorporated inChinese Cantos, and in The Cantos in general, should notput the reader off as they serve to underline things that are inthe English text and what is to be taken into account is theoverall impression.theirlabour,”“unjailed”300 prisoners so that they could “dospring ploughing,”and refrained from locking up “thepeople‟ssubsistence”(LIV). These instructions, included inthe first part of the Chinese Cantos, are studied more closelyin the following passages.Canto LII opens with references to Duke Leopoldo, JohnAdams and Gertrude Bell, before sliding into a particularlyvirulent anti-Semitic passage, directed mainly at theRothschild family. The remainder of the canto is concernedwith the classic Chinese text known as the Li Ki or Book ofRites, especially the parts that deal with agriculture andnatural increase. The diction is similar to that of earliercantos on similar subjects. The Li Ki offers a clear model forthe Confucian measurements of value by task as opposed totime. What matters here, as Wendy Stallard Flory hasPound advocated Confucian thought and pragmatic politicssuggested, is not the seasonal cycle in its temporal sense butin his Chinese Cantos to show his resistance to what hethe sense of the particular appropriateness of particular tasksregarded as the debasement of human life within theorganised by the accompanying rites (1980, 163). The cantocontemporary conditions of bourgeois economics – thedistinguishes organic or natural from mechanical time andcondition of capitalism, which distorted the nature andunderscores man‟sbond with the “vitauniverse”and thepurpose of work, time, and wealth. The emphasis of theneed to respect “thetimes and seasons.”As Williamhistorical materials in the Chinese Cantos is not on the pastCookson has commented, canto LII runs from the beginningbut on the present. Put another way, Pound has tried toof the summer to the end of the winter, forming a naturalreflect the merits and demerits of various Chinese dynastiesoverture to the long chronicle of Chinese history (2001, 73).in order to warn the present politicians and economistsThe tranquility of nature and Confucian instructions onagainst the detrimental effects of excessive taxation, usury,natural work, which are the central issues of many of theand chaos. As he contends in canto LIV, “Historyis apassages in canto LII, are discernible in the followingschool-book for Princes.”excerpt:In his Guide to Kulchur, Pound remarks that “KungCut trees at solstice, and arrow shafts of bamboo.[Confucius] is modern in his interest in folk-lore,”in hisThird month, wild geese go north,concern with “theliving”rather than with “thedead,”and inmagpie starts building,his stress on direct knowledge and personal experience,Pheasant lifteth his voice to the Spirit of Mountainswhich could be obtained through travelling and commerce,The fishing season is open,and be used as a “goodantidote for theories”or abstraction.rivers and lakes frozen deepAll these aspects of Confucius appear to Pound “tobe inPut now ice in your ice-house,conformity with the best modern views”(1952, 272-74).the great concert of windsCall things by the name. (1996, 271)When Pound contemplated Kung, it was by means ofcomparison that he grasped the parallels between ancientCanto LIII covers the period from the start of the Haiand modern, East and West. To Pound, the history ofdynasty to the life of Confucius and up to circa 225 BC.Confucius bore so many affinities to what he sought amidsthis own realities that he regarded him as a potent „modern‟Especial mention is made of emperors whom Confuciusreformer. Here we can see clearly how Pound bridges theapproved of; also, Confucius‟sinterest in cultural matters ispast and the present by means of comparison.stressed. For example, we are told that he edited the Book ofOdes, cutting it from 3000 to 300 poems. Moreover, theChinese Cantos introduce the foundations for a sound andcanto ascribes the Poundian motto (and title of a 1934productive economic management and the right form ofcollection of essays) Make it New to the Emperor Tchinggovernment; also, as Philip Furia has argued, they transmitTang who “keptdown the taxes”and “keptlynx eye onauthority and preserve law from tyranny or personalbureaucrats / lynx eyes on the currency”(277). Confuciusprejudice (1984, 8). Labour in these cantos becomes(and Pound‟s)favourite emperors understood that valueswere not to be viewed as materilised labour and thatassociated with seasonal time, natural order, and freedomfrom tyranny. Pound‟sideal empire is an “empireof lawseconomic activity, the source of wealth, could be tainted bynot of men”(canto LXVII) and such laws are not bent tousury. They held that if people limited their concern to“wantonimagination”or to the “temperof individuals”amassing money they would repress natural wealth andproductivity. They all spoke “evilof taxes,”kept “the(canto LXII). The Confucian temperament Pound reflects inhis Chinese Cantos is representative and expressive of apeace,”and cared “forthe people.”Among other emperorshierarchy based on authority and knowledge; as he writes inPound praises is Chao-Kong:canto LVI, “Noslouch ever founded a dynasty.”In theChinese Cantos, Pound praises those emperors who,Honour to Chao-Kong the surveyor.following Confucian economic and cultural instructions,Let his name last 3000 yearsGave each man land for his labourcontributed to the economic solidity of their nation. Theynot by plough-land alonehalved the taxes to “let the farm folk have tools for theirVolume 5 Issue 6, June 2016www.ijsr.netLicensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)ISSN (Online): 2319-7064Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 Impact Factor (2015): 6.391But for keeping of silk-wormsReforested the mulberry grovesSet periodical marketsExchange brought abundance, the prisons wereempty Peace and abundance bring virtue. (278-79)Peter Nicholls writes that for Pound, it is “the instrument ofproductive activity”(1984, 75). Many passages teachcirculation of abundance and distribution, backed by amoney handout in times of trouble. One of the emperorsPound pays tribute to is Ngan who was in favour of a “justprice”fixed by the state:Canto LIV moves Chinese history on to around 805 AD.and at this time began NganThe line “Somecook, some do not cook, / some things can to demand that they resetnot be changed”refers to Pound‟sdomestic life and recurs,the market tribunals,in part, in Canto LXXXI. Like other Chinese cantos, cantoposting every day what was on sale and what theLIV deals with methods of economics and shows aright price of it (309)Ngan ordered these markets to be monitored by thecomposite picture of an ideal ruler and administrator who isof”government and taxed lightly,sensitive to the needs of his people and speaks “eviltaxes and usury. Peter Makin explains that Confucius‟s(asthereby relieving the poor of all douanceswell as Pound‟s)recommended ruler[customs]giving them easy market for merchandise[f]ights the ever-recurring tendency towards graft; he cutsand enlivening commercepast his institutional advisors, to communicate with theby making to circulate the whole realm‟sordinary man; he considers war, hunting across farmland byabundance. (309)courtiers, palace extravagance, first and foremost asoppressions. He reverences God and the firtility-spirits inThis is Pound‟sideal state intervention; it encouragesploughing the annual furrow. His constructive energy cannotproductivity and creativity and curbs usury. Ngan foughtbe defeated by endless obstacles he has a sense of thepoverty and unemployment through direct and timely statecreative group working together, and is aware of thesupport and so his nation survived famine:suffering of the men under his command. (1985, 219)And Ngan saw land lying barrenOne such ruler, according to Pound, is Emperor HIAObecause peasants had nowt to sow thereOUEN TI who wrote:whence said: Lend ‟emgrain in the spring timethat they can pay back in autumnEarth is the nurse of all menwith a bit of an increase, this wd/ augment theI now cut off one half the taxesreserve. (309)I wish to follow the sages, to honour Chang Ti byAs for the currency, Ngan tried his best to control inflationmy furrowand upkeep the value of money and made sure that there wasLet farm folk have tools for their labour it isalways enough money in circulation:for this I reduce the said taxesGold is inedible. Let no war find us unready.Ngan made yet a third pointThus Tchao-tso of his ministry (war)that was to fix the value of money„Goldwill sustain no man‟slife nor will diamondsand to coin enough denarskeep the land under culture that shd/ stay always on the same footing. (310)by wise circulation. (289)In his Chinese cantos, and through his descriptions of hisideal ruler, Pound seems to implicitly voice his support forMussolini. He brings out of China a doctrine of rebellionagainst the contemporary political and economic systemsand a recommendation of his favourite ruler. Mussolini,Pound argued, had a sense of the people‟spulse because hecame from among them; also, he was a fighter of oppressionand a promoter of agriculture. Thus, in his Chinese Cantos,Pound was not simply portraying the tranquility of nature orreflecting Confucian cultural views or ideal rulers; he was,in effect, introducing his desired ruler and political systems.This is how, as Pound‟scritics have contended, politics andeconomics always go hand in hand in every passage ofPound‟sCantos, ultimately to introduce Mussolini as asaviour.Canto LV is mainly concerned with the rise of the Tartarsand the Tartar Wars that ended about 1200. There are quite afew monetary policies in the canto and Pound once againpraises Confucius whom here he describes as “themaster ofemperors.”Elaborating on Pound‟conception of money,What threatened Ngan‟sstate was the inflexibility and greedof the mandarins (usurpers) who oppressed “peasantsto getback their grain loans.”However, against this and similarfinancial challenges, his economic and political theories,which were meticulously put into effect, proved beneficialand he “worked20 years.”Canto LVI opens with passages on war (“easyto start a war/ not easy to finish one”)and taxation (“SUNGdied oflevying taxes”).Like other Chinese Cantos, Pound here setsreal wealth (productivity and seasonal work) against worldypossessions (“goldand jade are inedible”).This canto ismainly concerned with Ghengis and Kublai Khan and therise of their Yeun dynasty. The canto closes with theoverthrow of the Yeun and the establishment of the Mingdynasty, bringing us up to approximately 1400. Aselsewhere, Pound catalogues righteous Chinese emperors,who showed no sympathy with usury and excessive taxing,and names their virtues. Yu, for instance, supervised bridgeand road building and “gavegrain to the people / kept downthe taxes.”Mengko, another „Confucian‟ruler,Volume 5 Issue 6, June 2016www.ijsr.netLicensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)ISSN (Online): 2319-7064Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 Impact Factor (2015): 6.391took off taxesAnd in Cai Fong they made a grain dividendand gave instruction in farmingploughs, money, ammassi [grain reserves] (317)The word „dividend‟in the extract is reminiscent ofDouglas‟sSocial Credit theory. Pound‟sfavoured ruler notonly refrains from taxing people, but also offers moneyhandouts (here in form of grain supply) to his people.Another such administrator is Han whocame from the peopleHow many fathers and husbands are fallenMake censusGive rice to their familiesGive them money for ritesLet rich folk keep their goods by themLet the poor be providedI came not against YUENbut against grafters [usurers] and rebels (322)On the other hand, there are emperors whose inefficiencyeventually ruins the nation:War scares interrupt commerce. Money was now made ofbrassand profit on arms went to the governmentwine taxed high, settlers licensed.Lou-chi brought back the graftersand boosted the tea tax (317-18)you are, indeed, subjects of a great realmbut the larger than empire, the more shd/ it strivetoward peaceIf children are cut off from parentsif wives can not see their husbandsif yr houses are devast and your riches carriedawaythis is not of me but of mandarins (335)To pay homage to Manchu, the peace keeper, Poundconcludes canto LVIII with a Chinese ideogram whichstands for „peace.‟The translation of the Confucian classicsinto Manchu opens the following canto, Canto LIX. Thecanto is then concerned with the increasing Europeaninterest in China, as evidenced by a Sino-Russian bordertreaty and the foundation of the Jesuit Mission in 1685 underJean-François Gerbillon. There are passages that reflectConfucian instructions on culture and personal conduct:Urbanity in externals, virtu in internalssome in a high style for the ritessome in humble;for Emperors; for the peopleall things are here brought to precisionsthat we shd/ learn our integritythat we shd/ attain our integrity. (339)“Eunuchs”are once again condemned and forced to give uptheir jobs:And the four regents put eunuchs out of high officea thousand purged out of palacesand a half ton block of iron inscribedLet there be no Eunuch in office hereafter. (341)Canto LVII, which like the rest of the Chinese Cantos isCanto LX deals with the activities of the Jesuits, who, wecomparatively short, opens with the story of the flight of theare told, introduced astronomy, western music, and physicsemperor Kien Ouen Ti in 1402 or 1403 and continues with(So the Jesuits brought in astronomy / music and physicsthe history of the Ming up to the middle of the 16th century.from Europe”).The canto ends with limitations being placedPound here expresses his vehement fury against hoarderson Christians (“barbarians”),who had come to be seen asand usurers whom he calls “eunuchs”because of theunproductivity and barrenness they spawn in the state: “Andenemies of the state. The Confucian values of order andnatural work are once again celebrated:8 bloody eunuchs conspired with Lieu, / thunderbolt fell,naturally, on the palace”(328).Ortes very orderly, have lost none of their mongolhabits,Canto LVIII opens with a condensed history of Japan fromtheir princes in concord, no usury.the legendary first emperor Jimmu, who supposedly ruled inthe 7th century BC, to Toyotomi Hideyoshi (Anglicised byClever especially in lookin‟after their animals,Pound as Messier Undertree), who issued edicts againstclumsy bowmen, but hit their mark. (345)Christianity and raided Korea in the late 16th century, thusThe final canto in the sequence, Canto LXI, covers theputting pressure on China‟seastern borders. The canto thenreigns of Yong Tching and Kien Long, bringing the story upgoes on to outline the concurrent pressure placed on China‟sto the end of de Mailla‟saccount. Yong Tching is shownwestern borders by activities associated with the great Tartarbanning Christianity as “immoral”since he sees Christianshorse fairs, leading to the rise of the tartar Manchu dynasty.(whom he describes as “hypocrites”and “slidersand liars”)Manchu, a Poundian/Confucian ruler, adopted Chinese lawas people who seek to “uprootKung‟s[Confucius‟]laws.”and improved education. Commenting on the canto, PeterHe also established just prices for foodstuffs, bringing usMakin explains that Manchu disparages fabrication, teachesback to the ideas of Social Credit:loyalty, acts with restraint, and aims only to end oppressionAt moderate price we can sell in the spring(1985, 220). In a letter to Emperor Ming, Manchu writes:to keep the market price decent“Wetook arms against oppression / and from fear ofAnd still bring in a small revenueoppression / not that we wish to rule over you”(333). Hewhich should be used to getting more next cropdoes his utmost to maintain peace with other nations: “weAMMASSI or sane collection,have come for Peace not for payment. Come to bring peaceto have bigger provision next year,to the Empire”(337). And to the governor of Suen-hoa-fouthat is, augment our famine reservehe writes:and thus to keep the rice fresh in the store house.(351)Volume 5 Issue 6, June 2016www.ijsr.netLicensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
The Image of Confucius in Ezra Pound's "Chinese Cantos" (Cantos LII - LXI) Alireza Farahbakhsh Associate Professor In English Literature, University Of Guilan, Iran Abstract: The purpose of the present paper is to take a close look at the image Ezra Pound portrays Confucius in his Chinese Cantos (
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