Elibrary.bsu.edu.az
Ramiz DanizThe scientist passedahead of centuries– Nasiraddin TusiBaku -2014 1
Scientific editor – the Associate Member of ANAS, ProfessorEybali MehraliyevPreface – the Associate Member of ANAS, AcademicianRamiz MammadovScientific editor – the Associate Member of ANAS, Doctor ofphysics and mathematics, Academician Eyyub GuliyevReviewers –the Associate Member of ANAS, Prof. Rafig AliyevAssociate Member of ANAS, Professor Rehim HusseinovProfessor Ajdar Agayevsenior lecturerVidadi BashirovLiterary editor –the philologist Ganira AmirjanovaComputer design – SevinjComputer operator – SinayTranslator - Hokume HebibovaRamiz Daniz “The scientist passed ahead of centuries – NasiraddinTusi”. “MM-S”, 2014, 306 pİSBN 978-9952-8230-3-5Writing about the remarkable Azerbaijani scientist Nasiraddin Tusi,who has a great scientific heritage, is very responsible and honorable.Nasiraddin Tusi, who has a very significant place in the worldencyclopedia together with well-known phenomenal scientists, is one ofthe most honorary personalities of our nation. It may be named preciousstone of the Academy of Sciences in the East. Nasiraddin Tusi hasmasterpieces about mathematics, geometry, astronomy, geography andethics and he is an inventor of a lot of unique inventions and discoveries.According to the scientist, America had been discovered hundreds of yearsago. Unfortunately, most peoples don’t know this fact. I want to informreaders about Tusi’s achievements by means of this work. R.Daniz 2014D 4702060103M 087-2014 2
I’m grateful to leaders of theState Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republicfor their material and moral supportsfor publication of the workThe book has been publishedin accordance with the order of the“Partner” Science Development SupportSocial Union with the grant of theState Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic 3
Courageous step towards the great purposeI’m editing new work of the young writer. This work isan explanation of innovations made by Nasiraddin Tusi inthe field of astronomy. The author has explained role ofNasiraddin Tusi’s scientific activity in realization of greatgeographic discoveries in “Christopher Columbus, Nasiraddin Tusi and discovery of America” written after hisprevious trilogy. He has written that, Nasiraddin Tusi’sworks were taken to Columbus’s motherland – Italy,Columbus had analyzed them and went to Spain with thosematerials in order to organize his travel to India. N. Tusi’sactivity, which supported science in Western Europe andglobal discoveries, has been discovered in the work. I’mediting Ramiz Daniz’s work “The scientist passed aheadof centuries – Nasiraddin Tusi”. What made him to writethis book? He has gathered a lot of materials about thescientist’s activity and decided to write the second bookabout Nasiraddin Tusi. He named his work “The scientistpassed ahead of centuries – Nasiraddin Tusi”. Peoplehaven’t been informed enough about works of the scientistwritten about astronomy, mathematics, geometry, ethics,pedagogy, philosophy and other sciences. So, the authorwrote in the book: “ I began to investigate activities of 4
genius personalities of Azerbaijan Especially activity andscientific heritage of the notable scientist of AzerbaijanMuhammad Nasiraddin Tusi are very interesting. Thoughhe is an author of very significant scientific discoveries, heisn’t known enough in the world”. The author expresses hisregret and writes that, Nasiraddin Tusi’s works have beenpublished by most scientists as their own works. Readers,please, be attentive! The well-known Pole scientist N.Copernicus, who lived 250 years before Nasiraddin Tusi,had written the scientist’s theorem “Two circles, diameterof one of which is equal to half of the other one, are on oneplane” in his work “Rotation of celestial spheres”. For thefirst time, this theorem was proved by Nasiraddin Tusi andincluded in his work “Memories about astronomy”. Thewall quadrant used in the observatory of the Dane scientistTycho Brahe was invented in Maragha observatory as well.Nasiraddin Tusi’s devices and works had influenced thedevelopment of astronomy and mathematics in WesternEurope, Chine and India. But these facts are unknown forus – N. Tusi’s countrymen. So, Ramiz Deniz tried to giveenough information about Nasiraddin Tusi by means of thiswork.The author has used historical facts in order to describeNasiraddin Tusi’s activity. He has analyzed the 5
development of cosmography in the world and mentionedroles of Azerbaijani scientists and especially NasiraddinTusi in this field. He especially investigated Tusi’s activityin fields of astronomy, mathematics and diplomacy. Theauthor has proved that, devices invented by N. Tusi arekept in most museums of the world and they had a greatrole in the development of scientists all over the world. Hehas named one of headings of the book “N. Tusi’s scientificachievements of global importance”. He has mentionedthat, N. Tusi’s “Tahriru Uglidis” (“Recension of Euclid’sElements”), “Shaklul-qita” and “Collection of Counts”were basis for the development of geometry. The authorhas mentioned B. A. Rozenfeld’s following thought inorder to prove this assumption: “Nasiraddin refused toprove the postulate of parallelism by means of two axiomsand postulates and used only one simple postulate and itwas an important step for Lobachevski’s proof”. He hasproved his ideas by means of 24 items written at the end ofthe book.The work of the writer Ramiz Deniz has been written onthe basis of rich materials and it explains influence of theAzerbaijani scientist on the development of astronomy,mathematics, geodesy, ethics, geography, philosophy and 6
other sciences. The work has been written in accordancewith ideas of patriotism.Readers will have an opportunity to read interestingscientific facts very easily. But it is necessary to read itattentively. We name the fifth investigation work of theyoung innovator writer Ramiz Deniz “Courageous steptowards the great purpose” and wish him great future ofcreation.The Associate Member of ANAS,Doctor of geographical sciences,Professor Eybali Mehraliyev 7
PrefaceI got acquainted with the author of this book in June of2002. The society of “Education” invited me to thescientific-practical conference about “Scientific services ofNasiraddin Tusi and N. Tusi in the activity of the writer andresearcher Ramiz Gasimov (Daniz)” and offered me tomake speech about his book “Christopher Columbus,Nasiraddin Tusi and discovery of America”. To say thetruth I was surprised when heard the author’ name.Probably, readers know that, R. Gasimov works in theOil Refining Factory of SOCAR as a worker and isn’t higheducated, but I don’t want to speak about his autobiography. As the name of the book was too haughty, Iinvestigated the author’s previous activity and it turned outthat, he is the author of several books and trilogy written inthis field. After reading his books I asked myself: Who isR. Gasimov? Is he a writer or researcher and what does hewant to gain? I understood that, he has his own style andtries to combine notions of “writer” and “researcher” and isthe first author, who has achieved it. For example, he is aresearcher in the above mentioned book and books used forthis work prove it. Of course, most of issues mentioned inthe book are disputable. But the author shouldn’t be 8
accused for it as his purpose was to lay bare the truth bymeans of discussions and investigations.R. Gasimov tried to describe different ages together. So,his books resemble scientific annals and historicaladventure novels. This style can be considered one of newdirections of our literature.Of course, I’ll not describe the book in the preface. Butas the acquaintance with books starts in the preface, it willbe advisable to describe main purposes of the book. Thebook, which is about Tusi’s activity mainly, includes briefinformation about main results achieved in fields ofgeography, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, physicsetc., their history, conditions of development and authors ofthose results. The activity of the Azerbaijani traveler andresearcher Sheikh Muhammadali Babakuhi Bakuvi has alsobeen described in detail. It is important to know these factsin order to understand Tusi’s activity. Thus, if you want tolearn Tusi’s activity, you should learn scientific-socialconditions existed in the ancient time and middle ages androle of Eastern scientists in development of world. I thinkthat, the author could overcome this difficult and honorablework.He has described historical conditions of the age of Tusi,Hulegu khan’s victory on Abbasids and mentioned that, he 9
used advices of scientists before attacking Baghdad. Otherskills of Nasiraddin Tusi were discovered after being freedfrom prison. It turned out that, he was skilful organizer andstatesman. He could get permission of the ruler ofMongolia for construction of Maragha observatory andorganized this construction. Of course, previous inventionsof the scientist had significant role in this achievement. Thebook includes detailed information about Maraghaobservatory and scientists, who worked there. The authorhas compared “Zij-i Ilkhani” and “Zij-i Ulugbek” andproved that, the first work wasn’t worse than the second.Scientific achievements of Nasiraddin Tusi also werementioned in the book. The author has mentioned that, thescientist’s “Tahriru Uglidis” was used as a source by mostwell-known scientists of Europe. According to the author,Tusi had developed trigonometry as an independent branchof science.Geographical coordinates determined by Tusi by meansof simple astronomical equipments were determined moreprecisely afterwards. It is known that, the world map wasmade in accordance with coordinates fixed in “Zij-iIlkhani” and America was described on that map. So, R.Gasimov tries to prove that Columbus had used NasiraddinTusi’s map during the discovery of America. Readers may 10
ask following question – Was it necessary to write suchbook about Tusi? The initial answer may be “No”. But it isan unconsidered answer. Thus, how many Azerbaijanishave enough information about great Azerbaijani scientistNasiraddin Tusi? Unfortunately, the answer of this questionis certainly negative.Investigations prove that, H. Mammadbayli’s book isalmost the only monumental work written about NasiraddinTusi. It turns out that, we can get the most detailedinformation about N. Tusi by means of the encyclopedia“Cambridge history of Iran”. It is a great gap forAzerbaijani science. R. Gasimov gives interesting information about Tusi’s activity in mentioned book. It shouldn’tbe forgotten that, he is a writer and has his own style. Ithink that, it is necessary to inform readers about theAzerbaijani scientist in an interesting and new way.As it was mentioned above, the author tries to provethat, the map made by Tusi had an important role indiscovery of America by Columbus. This thought should beproved by means of additional researches. So, the authorhas created new issue for researchers though he is a writer.The author’s style and morphology of sentences aresatisfactory, don’t tire readers and the book is read easily.All these facts prove that, the author is talented enough, 11
though he is not high-educated. But education could helphim to work on more complicated issues.R. Gasimov is hard-working writer and so, we can waitfor his next books soon. I wish him success.The Associate Member of ANAS,Doctor of technical sciences, oceanologist,Academician Ramiz Mammadov 12
Ink used by scientists was comparedwith blood of martyrs andscientists’ ink was heavier.Prophet MuhammadDevelopment of the astronomy inancient timesPerfect thoughts of sage people are guides tounderstanding processes, which were incomprehensible forordinary people for hundreds of years. Almost all scientistshave investigated the structure of Earth, biological,physiological and geological processes of the planet andtried to elucidate these global questions since the age ofpharaohs’. İmprovement of existing science branches,development of the education mechanism supportformation of human thinking and increase of intellectualpotential. İt is impossible to deny that, scientists directlysupport realization of the dynamical phase according tolaws of the nature.We meet with names of notable personalities of ancienttimes and early middle ages – Aristotle, Platoon,Eratosthenes, Herodotus, Archimedes, Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, 13
Euclid, Strabo, Hipparchus and others in encyclopediaspublished in every country of the world. Activities andscientific heritages of these scientists have been learnt byinternational experts and explained to the worldcommunity. But sometimes names of authors of significantscientific discoveries and inventions aren’t mentionedproperly.After investigating activities of historical personalitieshaving significant roles in intensive development ofscience, culture, art and literature, I understood that, mostpersonalities’ life and scientific heritage haven’t beeninvestigated and appreciated properly. I wanted toinvestigate activities of genius personalities of Azerbaijan.Especially activity and scientific heritage of the notablescientist of Azerbaijan Muhammad Nasiraddin Tusi, who iswell-known in the Near East, are very interesting. Thoughhe is an author of very significant scientific discoveries, heisn’t known enough in the world. Enough attention isn’tpaid to scientific works of Tusi – well-known scientist andhistorical figure of his time, which had special role indevelopment of most branches of the science and they havebeen forgotten as extinct volcano. That volcano eruptedowing to the Professor Habibulla Mammadbayli about 50years ago. That is, Nasiraddin Tusi, who hasn’t been 14
propagated enough because of investigators’ indifferenceand has been forgotten by most people, began to beremembered at the result of H. Mammadbayli’s efforts.It became clear that, Nasiraddin Tusi wrote masterpiecesin fields of astronomy, mathematics, geometry and ethics,played a significant role in development of these sciencesand passed ahead of well-known scientists for hundreds ofyears. He wrote most of his works in Arabic and Persian,but they have been translated into many languages.Unfortunately, only two works of the scientist – “AkhlagiNasiri” and “Tahriru Uglidis” (2002) have been translatedinto Azerbaijani and presented to readers. It isn’t difficultto notice brilliance of N. Tusi after reading “AkhlagiNasiri”, which is about topical problems of education andmorality. This work is immortal, because though it waswritten 770 years ago, is still used as educationalequipment for educating Muslim generations. That is, N.Tusi has a significant role in preparation of pure society ineastern countries. The scientist’s works are morecomprehensive for their topicality, essence and significancein comparison with works of previous well-knownscientists. N. Tusi is one of important personalities of theMuslim Renaissance. He has combined three Renaissance 15
zones of the Near and Middle East in his activity – Arab,Persian and Turkish.Scientists usually use scientific heritage of theirpredecessors in order to develop their scientificinvestigations and discoveries.Utilization of the ancient Arab culture has beendeveloped since the age of Selevkies in the East unlike Italyand Western Europe, was continued till formation of Islamin the Near and Middle East, so peripatetism became animportant criterion of the eastern thinking, philosophersbegan to be divided into its supporters and objectors,intensive polemics began to be made.The genius scientist of the east – Nasiraddin Tusidefended peripatetic philosophy of Ibn Sina againstcriticism of the Muslim theologian Fakhraddin Razi,investigated the polemic about peripatetism betweenGhazali and Ibn Rushd.1Many scientists have benefited by Tusi’s works andenriched their intellectual potentials using them as a source.Even some of them have demounted his works andpublished as their own achievements. In spite of it, seriousefforts aren’t made in order to propagandize N. Tusi and he1Azərbaycan Beynəlxalq Universiteti. Nəsirəddin Tusinin 800 illikyubileyinə həsr edilmiş Respublika konfransının materialları. Bakı, 2001.Professor Y. F. Qaraməmmədlinin məruzəsi, səh. 267 16
is being gradually forgotten. That’s why I do my best inorder to investigate scientific activity, achievements andheritage of N. Tusi – honorary scientist of Azerbaijan andwhole east.First of all, I’ll give some information about scientificachievements of several well-known scientists of ancienttimes as they are considered founders and improvers of allsciences, which were known then. Development of mathematics, geometry, philosophy, astronomy and geographywas realized by them.Following questions have been causing people to thinksince the beginning of civilization on Earth: how did lifestart on Earth, what is the shape of the Earth, does the Earthhave more water than land? At first they thought that, theEarth was only a small territory. But when they began totravel from one settlement to another, understood that itisn’t as small as they imagined.After new settlements and geographical areas werediscovered, people began to think that, the Earth is endless.This opinion appeared because there weren’t high-speedvehicles in ancient times. All distances were overcome byfeet. So scientists of ancient times carried out scientificinvestigations in order to get information about the shapeand area of the Earth. 17
As years passed, people’s thoughts about the Earth andSky changed. So, astronomy and geography began to bedeveloped and number of scientists investigating thesefields began to increase.In ancient Babylonia people thought that, the Earth wasswollen round island and sailed in the ocean, the universestood on the Earth as a durable stone, planets and stars hadbeen stuck on it and the Sun revolved around them.It is known that, scientists of ancient Babylonia coulddetermine solar and lunar eclipses in 18th century BC. It isobvious that, it was necessary to know elements oftrigonometry for it. It means that, geometry, mathematicsand astronomy had developed in Babylonia.Scientists as Heraclitus, Democritus and Pythagorastried to determine movements of celestial bodies in ancientGreek before Aristotle. The Greek thinker Heraclitus (544470 BC) thought that, the world developed comprehensively.Democritus thought that (460-370 BC), the universeconsisted of infinite number of worlds including collisionof atoms. He mentioned that, some worlds formed newly,some were in the stage of development and othersdisintegrated. Democritus thought that, the Milky Way 18
consisted of many stars. That’s why cosmic explosionsoccurred in the universe.1Democritus (460-370 BC)The Greek scientist Pythagoras (580-500 BC) had gotlessons of Hermodamast, philosophers Ferekid and Fales(founder of the first school of philosophy).1Д. К. Самин. Сто великих научных открытий. Москва, «Вече»,2002. стр. 257 19
Fales, who had received his first education in Egypt, hadlearned to determine solar and lunar eclipses and geometrythere. He was able to determine the distance between thecoast and stopped ship exactly. Fales and his studentsplayed special role in spreading knowledge of mathematicsand astronomy learned by them in Egypt in Greece.Fales Miletus (640-556 BC)The student of Fales, well-known geographer andastronomer Anaximander taught Pythagoras everything heknew (640-556 BC) in Miletus. 20
Some scientists mentioned that, Anaximander (VIcentury BC) was an author of the first world geographymap. Probably, he determined sides of the horizon and thenfixed poles of the Earth on the map by means of them.1Pythagoras was in Lesbos Island, Phoenicia, Egypt andBabylonia in that period and could enter the building,where historical documents had been kept.Pythagoras learned astronomy, astrology, medicine andmathematics with the teaching method of Hadley scientistswhen he was in Babylonia.2 He opened his school inCroton in Sicily Island and declared that, the Earth wasround. Pythagoras mentioned that, there were ten planets inthe universe. Nevertheless only the Sun, the Moon and fiveplanets were known then (besides the Earth).Pythagoras mentioned that, the Earth was round and wasin the air without any bearing. Aristotle (384-322 BC) hadwritten length of the equator in his work “About the sky”and noted that the Earth radius was equal to 10000 km. Hethought that land, water, air and fire were formed of etherand were located on each others as a sphere.1И. П. Магидович, В. И. Магидович. Очерки по истории географических открытий. I том. Москва, «Просвещение», 1982. стр. 1262Д. К. Самин. Сто великих ученых. Москва, «Вече», 2002. стр.8 21
Pythagoras (580-500 BC)Greeks thought that, the land was surrounded by theocean and its waters circulated around the Earth as aneternal whirlpool.11Н. А. Кун. Легенды и сказания Древней Греции и ДревнегоРима. Москва, «Правда», 1990. стр.25 22
Aristotle and his predecessors rejected ideas about theEarth’s rotation about its own axis and its revolution in theuniverse. They explained it as following: if the Earthrotates about its own axis, wind can carry along everythingon the Earth towards the west.1 Scientists had severalarguments about it.There is no doubt that hypothesises and scientific proofsof ancient times on the astronomy and the Earth’s structuresimplified work of future scientists. Several works ofAristarchus (320-230 BC) have remained still. He coulddetermine angular size of the Moon and the Sun. Besides it,Aristarchus tried to calculate the distance to the Moon andthe Sun. According to his calculations, the distancebetween the Earth and Moon is equal to 19 Earth radiuses.The distance to the Sun is 19 times more than this distance.As the scientist took the distance between the Earth andSun into consideration, he was obliged to mention that,stars and the Sun don’t change their places in the space andthe Earth revolves round the Sun. Archimedes alsoexplained his thought about it. Thus, Aristarchus explainedhis thoughts about the Earth’s revolution round the Sun1Д. К. Самин. Сто великих научных открытий. Москва, «Вече»,2002. стр. 257 23
before Nicolaus Copernicus. But he couldn’t prove itscientifically unlike the Pole scientist.It was necessary to develop mathematics, astronomy andgeography in order to achieve mentioned scientific goals.Well-known scientists as Aristotle, Hipparchus, Ptolemy,Euclid, Archimedes and Eratosthenes played matchless rolein improvement of this field. Even the smallest scientificachievements were considered great discovery for expertsat that time.Very interesting achievements were got in the field ofancient geography in V-IV centuries BC. Main achievements of scientists were results got in investigation of theEarth’s shape and the theory about the unity of the worldocean. For the first time, Parmenides declared that, theEarth was spherical (V century BC), but his idea wasscientifically weak.According to the German scientist D. B. Ditmars, for thefirst time, astronomer, geographer and philosopher EudoxKnidli (408-353 BC) proved that, the Earth was round.1Probably, he used the term “horizon” and determinedgeographical latitude for the first time. Some historians andgeographers think that the equator’s length was determined1И. П. Магидович, В. И. Магидович. Очерки по истории географических открытий. I том. Москва, «Просвещение», 1982. стр. 129 24
by Eudox too. Though the length determined by him was sogreat – 400 thousand stades (if we consider that, 1 stade isequal to 157.5-176 meters, this length was equal to 63-70thousand kilometers), it was an important step made in thisfield.His arguments were as following: As the Earth was seenround in the Moon during a lunar eclipse, the Earth’ssurface became wider when ascending a mountain, view ofstars changed when going towards the South or North(Aristotle had used this method (384-322 BC)), it wasn’tdifficult to understand that, the Earth was round.It is known that, a very large library was established inAlexandria, when the city was founded in the delta of theNile in accordance with the order of Alexander the Greatand probably, it was filled with manuscripts brought frommost cities of Egypt, Babylonia and Greece. That’s whymost well-known scientists of ancient times tried to go toAlexandria in order to increase their knowledge.The Greek scientist, well-known astronomer, geographerand mathematician Eratosthenes Kerensky, who lived inAlexandria (end of III century and beginning of II century),had determined by means of “roughly made things” that,the length of the equator was equal to 252 thousand stades– about 39690 km (today’s length is 40076 km) and the 25
Earth radius was 6311 km (today’s length is 6378 km).Besides it, he had written that, 1 degree was equal to 700stades. Several scientists write that, Eratosthenes hadwritten this information in accordance with Pytheos’scalculations. According to Pytheos’s calculations, 1 degreeof the meridian was equal to 105-112 km.Platon (427-347 BC)Aristotle (384-322 BC)The Syrian geographer, historian and traveler Posidoniuscalculated length of the equator at the end of II century andbeginning of I century. He thought that, his first result – 26
180 thousand stades was correct. This result surprised somegeographers and travelers of XV-XVI centuries.First scientists of ancient times tried to divide knownland areas of the Earth into continents. According tohistorical sources, geographers of Miletus used words“Europe” and “Asia” for the first time when spoke aboutdivision into continents.Young contemporary of Anaximander Hekatey Miletli(VI-V century BC) mentioned Libya (Africa) besides thosecontinents. First two islands had almost been forgotten tillthe age of Herodotus.Herodotus described Arabia, Syria, Small Asia,Mesopotamia, Iran Mountains and Northwestern India asAsia in his work. He declared that, the territory, which waslocated in the East, was unknown desert, Europe wassituated in the north of Asia, Egypt and Libya were situatedin the west. Egypt was connected with Asia by means ofthe “narrow cape” (Isthmus of Suez and Sinai Peninsula).Herodotus wasn’t aware of existence of the word“Africa”. This word was met for the first time in the ancientliterature, remained parts of the poem “Annales” ofQuintus Ennius at the end of III century. But this nameconcerned only main province of Carthage. Occupiersfounded province by name Africa after Carthage was 27
destroyed by Romans (146 BC) and then the wholecontinent was called Africa.1The Earth’s appearance according to HerodotusScientists of ancient times made significant discoveriesin astronomy by means of primitive methods. For the firsttime, Aristotle had explained his idea about the unity of the1И. П. Магидович, В. И. Магидович. Очерки по истории географических открытий. I том. Москва, «Просвещение», 1982. стр. 126 28
World Ocean. But the theory about the global World Oceanwas founded by Eratosthenes. He wrote: “ If largeness ofthe Atlantic Ocean wasn’t an obstacle, it could be possibleto sail from Spain to India through the same parallel”(Strabo I, 4, §6). It was known in 200 BC that, Spain wassituated on the same parallel with India. Posidonius hadexplained this theory exactly: “ It is known that, settledland is surrounded by the ocean. It isn’t surrounded by anyland area” (Strabo I, 3, §5). Strabo also agreed with thisthought (I, 1, §8).Global changes occurred in geographical structure of theEarth in ancient times, but those changes couldn’t beanalyzed theoretically. Scientists of that time accepted thetheory, which noted that the Earth was round and there wasglobal World Ocean.Pompony Mela defended the idea about the WorldOcean in the middle of I century and mentioned that, Westand East Oceans were connected with Britain and SkiffOceans in the North and with Ethiopia, Red and Indian seasin the South.1 We may look through the map made byPompony Mela. He named part of the Indian Ocean and theterritory between the Red Sea and rank of the Indian River1И. П. Магидович, В. И. Магидович. Очерки по истории географических открытий. I том. Москва, «Просвещение», 1982. стр. 131 29
as the Red Sea and the territory between the rank of theIndian River and south-eastern part of Asia as the IndianSea.The Earth’s appearance according to Pomponius MelaThe Indian Ocean, Ephiop and Red seas separate Europe, Asia and Africa with the hypothetic land surrounded bywater and settled by people, who lived on the opposite side.Most scientists don’t agree with this thought and thereweren’t ocean in the East and North of Asia and in the 30
south of Ethiopia in Ptolemy’s “Geography” after 100years. Thus, in Ptolemy’s world map, the territory of Asiaextended towards the North and North-east, but Africaextended towards the south. The south-east of Asia andsouth-eastern part of Africa were connected with thehypothetic land located in the south. At the result of it, theIndian Ocean became large lake. Ptolemy was very talentedscientist of Europe before Renaissance and his map wasdemonstrated in all cartography and geography circles. Inthat case it was impossible to go to India from Europethrough the south of Africa. It was possible to go to Indiathrough the sea by going round the Earth. But that way wasvery long for seamen.That’s why land road began to be used for going fromEurope to India at first. Travelers and merchants used tomake maps even with primitive methods in order toappropriate the most convenient way going to the east ofAsia. Any effort wasn’t made in order to discover seawayto India even during development of navigation andimprovement of ship constructions. Even when the RomanEmpire intensified its occupation policy towards the East, itdidn’t do anything for
2 Scientific editor - the Associate Member of ANAS, Professor Eybali Mehraliyev Preface - the Associate Member of ANAS, Academician Ramiz Mammadov Scientific editor t
But all universities including Boise State University (BSU) have adopted an ideology that demands a built out apparatus. Social Justice education at BSU is no longer in its infancy. It is heading toward maturity, spreading into hiring, policies, curriculum, and student life. BSU is adding to its social justice mission every year.
Influence of the frog vagosympathetic nerve fascicle stimulation on the heart activity. 60 Reflex influence on heart activity (reflex of Holtz, Dagnini - Aschner reflex). 63 Effect of hormones and electrolytes on heart activity (heart isolation by Schtraub method). 63 Measuring of the blood pressure of man. 70 The Donders model. 87
different ideas and views compete to influence law and social change. Conclusion 77 The United States has dramatically changed from its beginnings as 13 little-known colonies. Index 78 T able of C on T en T s iii. Above: Cummod esequat, vullamc onsequat, core tate minisi ea feugue
government that they soon emulated. Today, the strength of Chinese influence is still felt in Korea's Confucian-based laws, political norms and bureaucratic institutions. In the two centuries after Koguryǒ absorbed the Lelang Commandery, two other regional hereditary monarchies began to centralize and consolidate their power: Paekche and Silla.
his personal tastes, feelings and impressions. Subjectivity may be a falsifying influence, but it may also be an important virtue, adding intimacy, charm, or force. 5. Further, one may ask whether the author has a deliberately formed theory of life; and if so how it shows itself, and, of course, how sound it is.
Literary theory: an introduction / Terry Eagleton. - 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN -8166-1251-X (pbk: alk paper) 1. Criticism—History—20th century. . This book is an attempt to make modern literary theory intelligible and attractive to as wide a readership as possible. Since it first appeared in 1983,
Intelligence quotient (IQ) 7 Test1.1 IQtest 11 2 Specificaptitudetests 25 SectionI Verbalaptitude 28 Test2.1 SynonymtestA 28 Test2.2 SynonymtestB 30 Test2.3 AntonymtestA 31 Test2.4 AntonymtestB 33 Test2.5 AnalogytestA 34 Test2.6 AnalogytestB 36 Test2.7 Classificationtest 38 Test2.8 Comprehension 40 Test2.9 AdvancedverbaltestA multi .
(half serious, half playful) Yes – except for last summer, when you never came near me –Sheila (Act 1) Suggesting that she doesn [t fully trust him, despite the fact that theyre going to be married soon, but again shows how she is childish, and relatively light-hearted, as she is still half playful [ even in something which could be seen as quite serious. men with important work to do .
