Critical Minerals Today And In 2030: An Analysis Of OECD Countries

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Critical minerals today and in 2030: an analysisof OECD countriesRenaud Coulomb, Simon Dietz, Maria Godunova andThomas Bligaard NielsenPolicy paperNovember 2015ESRC Centre for Climate Change Economics andPolicyGrantham Research Institute on Climate Change andthe Environment

The Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy (CCCEP) wasestablished in 2008 to advance public and private action on climate changethrough rigorous, innovative research. The Centre is hosted jointly by theUniversity of Leeds and the London School of Economics and PoliticalScience. It is funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council. Moreinformation about the ESRC Centre for Climate Change Economics andPolicy can be found at: http://www.cccep.ac.ukThe Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and theEnvironment was established in 2008 at the London School of Economicsand Political Science. The Institute brings together international expertise oneconomics, as well as finance, geography, the environment, internationaldevelopment and political economy to establish a world-leading centre forpolicy-relevant research, teaching and training in climate change and theenvironment. It is funded by the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of theEnvironment, which also funds the Grantham Institute for Climate Change atImperial College London. More information about the Grantham ResearchInstitute can be found at: http://www.lse.ac.uk/grantham/This policy paper is intended to inform decision-makers in the public, privateand third sectors. It has been reviewed by at least two internal referees beforepublication. The views expressed in this paper represent those of theauthor(s) and do not necessarily represent those of the host institutions orfunders.

UnclassifiedENV/WKP(2015)12Organisation de Coopération et de Développement ÉconomiquesOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development08-Sep-2015English - Or. EnglishENVIRONMENT DIRECTORATEENV/WKP(2015)12UnclassifiedCRITICAL MINERALS TODAY AND IN 2030: AN ANALYSIS FOR OECD COUNTRIES ENVIRONMENT WORKING PAPER No. 91by Renaud Coulomb, Simon Dietz, Maria Godunova and Thomas Bligaard Nielsen (Grantham ResearchInstitute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics and PoliticalScience (LSE), London, U.K.)OECD Working Papers should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its membercountries. The opinions expressed and arguments employed are those of the author(s).Authorised for publication by Simon Upton, Director, Environment Directorate.Keywords: Critical minerals, critical materials, resource scarcity, recycling, material recovery, materialsecurity, circular economyJEL classification: Q320, Q370, O130, F690OECD Environment working papers are available at www.oecd.org/environment/workingpapers.htmEnglish - Or. EnglishJT03381385Complete document available on OLIS in its original formatThis document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation ofinternational frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.

ENV/WKP(2015)12OECD ENVIRONMENT WORKING PAPERSOECD Working Papers should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of itsmember countries. The opinions expressed and arguments employed are those of the author(s).OECD Working Papers describe preliminary results or research in progress by the author(s) and arepublished to stimulate discussion on a broad range of issues on which the OECD works.This series is designed to make available to a wider readership selected studies on environmentalissues prepared for use within the OECD. Authorship is usually collective, but principal author(s) arenamed. The papers are generally available only in their original language -English or French- with asummary in the other language.Comments on OECD Working Papers are welcomed, and may be sent to:OECD Environment Directorate2 rue André Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16, Franceor by e-mail: --------------------------------------------OECD Environment Working Papers are published -------------------This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over anyterritory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, cityor area.The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities.The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalemand Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. OECD (2015)You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECDpublications, databases and multimedia products in your own documents, presentations, blogs, websites andteaching materials, provided that suitable acknowledgment of OECD as source and copyright owner is given.All requests for commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to rights@oecd.org.2

ENV/WKP(2015)12ABSTRACTRaw materials are essential for the global economy and future development depends on theircontinued supply. Like fossil fuels, minerals are non-renewable. In general, their deposits in the Earth’scrust are also geographically clustered, making security of supply a potential risk. In many cases, theexhaustion of economically competitive minerals deposits in industrialized countries has made suppliesincreasingly dependent on the political stability of mineral-rich emerging economies. At the same time,increasing demand from these emerging markets, new technologies that require large amounts of rareminerals , low substitutability in applications and low rates of recycling have made economies morevulnerable to potential supply disruptions. Consequently policy-makers in several OECD countries andregions have developed reports that assess the vulnerability of their respective economies to disruptions inthe supply of minerals. A common aim of many of these studies is the identification of a list of so-called‘critical minerals’, defined as minerals for which the risk of disruptions in supply is relatively high and forwhich supply disruptions will be associated with large economic impacts.The purpose of this report is to perform for the first time an analysis of critical minerals for the OECDcountries as a whole. In addition, this is done not only today, as previous reports have done, but also in2030, in order to form an initial picture of how possible trends in economic development will affect whichminerals are critical in the long-run future. 51 different minerals are included in our analysis. Threemeasures of mineral supply risk are used: substitutability, recycling rates and the concentration ofproduction in countries that are judged by international datasets to be relatively politically unstable.Physical scarcity is not considered to be a source of supply risk, certainly in the short term. While the nonrenewable nature of minerals is an eventual constraint on what can be extracted, reserves are generallylarge and market mechanisms work to alleviate the problem. Potential disruptions are instead perceived tocome from the nexus of production concentration and geopolitical risks. It is also rather unlikely thatphysical scarcity will affect supply risk in the period up to 2030, but the report does allow for such ascenario by introducing to the index of supply risk a measure of the number of years to forecast depletionof reserves. Vulnerability to supply risk – i.e. the ‘economic importance’ of a mineral – is morechallenging to estimate and there is no consensus among existing studies. This report looks at how eachmineral is used in different sectors, as well as how economically important these sectors are for theeconomy.The analysis identifies around 12 to 20 minerals or minerals groups, which are critical in the OECDtoday. Minerals like the rare earth elements (heavy and light), germanium and natural graphite have aparticularly high supply risk, while minerals such as barytes, tungsten and vanadium are particularlyeconomically important. Looking out to 2030, a stronger role is assumed for the physical availability ofreserves in determining where production takes place, which results in increased supply risk for barytes,borate, phosphate rock and molybdenum. Also, the economic development along a baseline scenario thatassumes continued reliance on fossil fuels for energy does not change significantly the pattern of economicimportance of the various minerals concerned. Future work should evaluate whether this also holds true fora pathway towards green, low-carbon growth. Lastly the report shows what improvements in thesubstitutability of minerals and in their recycling rates would be sufficient today and more importantly by2030 to mitigate supply risks and vulnerability to them. This could be a focus for public support for R&Din the OECD. The results are highly mineral-specific, with some minerals requiring huge increases insubstitutability and/or recycling from a low base, while others require only small improvements.Keywords: Critical minerals, critical materials, resource scarcity, recycling, material recovery, materialsecurity, circular economyJEL classification: Q320, Q370, O130, F6903

ENV/WKP(2015)12RÉSUMÉLes matières premières sont essentielles pour l'économie mondiale et le développement futur dépendde leur approvisionnement continu. Comme les combustibles fossiles, les minerais ne sont pasrenouvelables. Par ailleurs, leurs dépôts dans la croûte terrestre sont, en général, regroupésgéographiquement, faisant ainsi de la sécurité de l'approvisionnement un risque potentiel. Dans denombreux cas en effet, pour ce qui est des pays industrialisés, l'épuisement des réserves en mineraiséconomiquement compétitifs a rendu l'approvisionnement en matières premières une activité de plus enplus dépendante de la stabilité politique des pays émergents riches en minerais. Dans le même temps, lademande croissante de ces marchés émergents, mais aussi les nouvelles technologies qui nécessitent degrandes quantités de minerais rares, ainsi qu’une faible substituabilité dans leurs applications concrètes etdes taux de recyclage faibles, ont rendu les économies plus vulnérables aux éventuelles rupturesd'approvisionnement. Par conséquent les décideurs dans plusieurs pays et régions de l'OCDE ontcommandé des rapports qui évaluent la vulnérabilité de leurs économies respectives face à desperturbations dans l'approvisionnement en minerais. L’objectif commun d'un grand nombre de ces étudesest l'identification d'une liste de soi-disant «minerais critiques», définis comme les minerais pour lesquelsle risque de perturbations de l'approvisionnement est relativement élevé et pour lesquels les ruptures enapprovisionnement seront associées à de grands impacts économiques.Le but de ce rapport est de réaliser pour la première fois une analyse des minerais essentiels pour lespays de l'OCDE dans son ensemble. Cette analyse est un état des lieux à la date d’aujourd’hui, comme lesrapports précédents l’ont fait. En outre, l’étude propose aussi une projection à l’an 2030 afin d’analyserquelle incidence peuvent avoir les tendances dans le développement économique sur tel ou tel minerai àlong terme. 51 minerais différents sont inclus dans notre analyse. Trois mesures d’analyse du risqued'approvisionnement en minerais sont utilisées: la substituabilité, les taux de recyclage et la concentrationde la production dans les pays qui sont jugés par les ensembles de données internationales pour êtrerelativement instables politiquement. La rareté physique d’un minerai ne doit pas être considérée commeune source de risque pour l’approvisionnement, au moins à court terme. Bien que la nature nonrenouvelable d’un minerai soit une contrainte éventuelle sur les quantités qui peuvent être extraites, lesréserves sont généralement de grande taille et les mécanismes du marché fonctionnent pour atténuer leproblème. Les perturbations potentielles sont plutôt à anticiper du côté du lien qui existe entre laconcentration de la production et les risques géopolitiques. Il est également peu probable que la raretéphysique d’un minerai ait une incidence sur le risque d’approvisionnement, au moins pour ce qui est de lapériode allant jusqu'à 2030, mais le rapport prévoit toutefois un tel scénario en introduisant à l'indice derisque d'approvisionnement une mesure du nombre d'années pour prévoir l'épuisement des réserves. Lavulnérabilité en matière de risque d’approvisionnement - à savoir « l'importance économique» d'un minerai- est plus difficile à estimer et il n'y a pas de consensus entre les études existantes. Ce rapport examinecomment chaque minerai est utilisé dans différents secteurs et il montre ainsi l'importance économique deces secteurs sur l'économie dans son ensemble.L'analyse identifie autour de 12 à 20 minerais ou groupes de minerais qui sont essentiels aux pays del'OCDE aujourd'hui. Des minerais comme les terres rares (aussi bien lourds que légères), le germanium etle graphite naturel présentent un risque particulièrement élevé en approvisionnement, tandis que lesminerais tels que la barytine, le tungstène et le vanadium sont particulièrement importants sur le planéconomique. A l’horizon 2030, on peut supposer qu’un rôle plus important sera accordé à la disponibilitéphysique des réserves pour déterminer les lieux de production, ce qui entraînera un risque accru enapprovisionnement pour la baryte, le borate, le phosphate et le molybdène. En outre, le développementéconomique basé sur un scénario de référence qui suppose une dépendance continue aux combustiblesfossiles pour l'approvisionnement en énergie ne change pas de manière significative le modèle dedéveloppement économique des différents minerais concernés. Les travaux futurs devraient évaluer si cela4

ENV/WKP(2015)12est également vrai si l’on s’engage vers une croissance verte à faible émission en carbone. Enfin, le rapportmontre quel amélioration de la substituabilité des minerais et de leur taux de recyclage seraient nécessaireaujourd'hui et plus important encore en 2030 pour atténuer les risques d'approvisionnement et de lavulnérabilité face à cela. Cela pourrait être une priorité pour l’investissement public en R & D au sein despays de l'OCDE. Les résultats restent toutefois très spécifiques pour chaque minerai car certains mineraisayant de très faibles sources d’approvisionnement nécessitent d'énormes augmentations de substituabilité et/ ou de recyclage tandis que d'autres ne nécessitent que de petites améliorations dans leur exploitation.Mots clés : Matériaux critiques, minéraux critiques, rareté des ressources, recyclage, récupération desmatériaux, sécurité matérielle, économie circulaireClassification JEL: Q320, Q370, O130, F6905

ENV/WKP(2015)12TABLE OF CONTENTSABSTRACT .3RÉSUMÉ .41. INTRODUCTION .82. IDENTIFYING CRITICAL MINERALS .112.1 An emerging framework for identifying critical minerals: supply risk versus economic importance .112.2 This study .132.2.1 Supply risk.132.2.2 Economic importance .182.2.3 Long-list of minerals, and data sources .193. RESULTS .203.1 Critical minerals in OECD countries today .203.1.1 Supply risk today .203.1.2 Economic importance and overall criticality today .213.1.3 An alternative measure of supply risk today .263.2 Critical minerals in OECD countries in 2030 .283.2.1 Future supply risks .283.2.2 Future economic importance .313.3 Recycling and substitutability needs .324. ROBUSTNESS CHECKS .374.1 Weighting factors .374.2 Alternative risk measures .384.3 An alternative approach to economic importance.415. LIMITATIONS .436. CONCLUSION .45REFERENCES .46Reports and papers .46Websites .47APPENDIX .48TablesTable 1.Table 2.Table 3.Table 4.Table 5.Table 6.Minerals included in our analysis .9Minerals with a high concentration of production.15Summary of sources .19The top ten minerals in terms of supply risk .20Correlations between the elements of the supply risk index .38Supply risk values for all minerals. .486

ENV/WKP(2015)12FiguresFigure 1.Figure 2.Figure 3.Figure 4.Figure 5.Figure 6.Figure 7.Figure 8.Figure 9.Figure 10.Figure 11.Figure 12.Figure 13.Figure 14.Figure 15.Figure 16.Figure 17.Figure 18.Figure 19.Figure 20.Figure 21.Criticality matrix .12Identifying critical minerals in the OECD .13Relationship between reserves and resources .16Mine production and static lifetimes predictions for (a) copper and (b) nickel.17Minerals as a function of production concentration and substitutability .21Critical minerals in OECD countries today .23Economic importance for the USA vs. the OECD as a whole, today.24Economic importance for Japan vs. the OECD as a whole, today .25Economic importance for the EU vs. the OECD as a whole, today .26Production-to-reserves ratio .27Comparing modified supply risk with the original formula .28Supply risk predictions for 2030 using the production-to-reserves ratio method.29Supply risk predictions for 2030 using reserve distribution instead of production .31Economic Importance in 2030 .32Changes in substitutability needed to mitigate criticality today .33Changes in substitutability needed to mitigate criticality in 2030 .34Changes in recycling needed to mitigate criticality today .35Changes in recycling needed to mitigate criticality in 2030.36Supply risk based on PRS vs. Supply risk based on WGI .39Supply risk based on OMI vs. Supply risk based on WGI .40Economic importance for the USA of 9 minerals according to different methods .42BoxesBox1.Box 2.What is the relevance of material criticality to the CIRCLE project .8Production and reserves of phosphate rock .307

ENV/WKP(2015)121. INTRODUCTION1Raw materials are essential for the global economy and future development depends on theircontinued supply. Covering a large variety of resources from metals to fossil fuels, raw materials enter theeconomic system through a similarly large variety of applications. Coal, oil and natural gas continue todominate the global economy’s primary energy mix. Tin is used in steel containers and electrical circuits,nickel for plating and copper for electrical applications, phosphorus and potassium are used as soilfertilizers, rare earth elements (REEs) are central in information and communications technologies andgreen technologies, and germanium, gallium and antimony are used in semi-conductors.While much attention has been paid to whether the supply of fossil fuels can (and should) meet energydemand now and in the future, global consumption of non-energy minerals increased markedly in thesecond half of the 20th century and particularly during the last two to three decades, where it outstrippedgrowth in fossil energy carriers (Krausmann et al., 2009). This trend is likely to accelerate with demandsfor a green-growth transition, as many environmental technologies depend crucially on rare minerals.Like fossil fuels, minerals are non-renewable. In general, their deposits in the Earth’s crust are alsogeographically clustered, making security of supply a potential risk. In many cases, the exhaustion ofeconomically competitive minerals deposits in industrialised countries has made supplies increasinglydependent on the political stability of mineral-rich emerging economies. At the same time, increasingdemand from these emerging markets, new technologies that require large amounts of rare minerals(DERA, 2012), low substitutability in applications and low rates of recycling have made economies morevulnerable to potential supply disruptions.Box1.What is the relevance of material criticality to the CIRCLE projectFurther degradation of the environment and natural capital compromises prospects for future economic growthand human well-being. Without more ambitious policies, the costs and consequences of inaction on importantenvironmental challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, water scarcity and health impacts of pollution willbe significant.The OECD’s “Cost of Inaction and Resource Scarcity; Consequences for Long-term Economic Growth”(CIRCLE) project aims at identifying how feedbacks from poor environmental quality, climatic change and naturalresource scarcity are likely to affect economic growth in the coming decades.This report contributes to the resource scarcity track of the CIRCLE project. Considerations of material criticalityare relevant to this work, as supply shocks resulting from disruptions of trade, or sudden surges in demand for certainminerals resulting from technological innovation can be expected to impact economic outcomes. This report providesinsights into the materials and sectors that may potentially be affected by such shocks, as well as the policies that maybe helpful in mitigating their effects.Consequently policy-makers in several countries and regions – for example, France, Germany, theEU, UK and US – have commissioned reports to assess the vulnerability of their respective economies todisruptions in the supply of minerals. A common aim of many of these studies is the identification of a listof so-called ‘critical minerals’, defined as minerals for which the risk of disruptions in supply is relativelyhigh and for which supply disruptions will be associated with large economic impacts, i.e. highvulnerability. The purpose of this report is to perform for the first time an analysis of critical minerals for1The authors acknowledge helpful comments on earlier drafts from Peter Börkey, Alex Bowen, AymanElshkaki, Sam Fankhauser,Thomas Graedel, and Adrian Chapman and for the provision of key data fromJean Chateau and other colleagues from OECD. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors.8

ENV/WKP(2015)12the OECD countries as a whole. In addition, this is done not only today, as previous reports have done, butalso in 2030, in order to form an initial picture of how possible trends in economic development will affectwhich minerals are critical in the long-run future. 51 different minerals are included in our analysis, listedin Table 1.Table 1. Minerals included in our analysisAluminiumGypsumREE BauxiteIron oreSeleniumBentoniteLimestoneSilica sandBerylliumLithiumSilicon ysManganeseTantalumCobaltMolybdenumTelluriumCoking coalNatural gstenFeldsparPerliteVanadiumFluorsparPlatinum Group Metals (PGMs)ZincGalliumPhosphate RockGermaniumPotashGoldREE (Heavy)Three measures of mineral supply risk are used: substitutability, recycling rates and the concentrationof production in countries that are judged by international datasets to be relatively politically unstable.Physical scarcity is not considered to be a source of supply risk, certainly in the short term. While the nonrenewable nature of minerals is an eventual constraint on what can be extracted, reserves are generallylarge and market mechanisms work to alleviate the problem. Increased scarcity stimulates priceadjustments, which trigger technological development, new exploration, higher recycling efforts and thesearch for substitutes. Potential disruptions are instead perceived to come from the nexus of productionconcentration and geopolitical risks. It is also rather unlikely that physical scarcity will affect supply risk inthe period up to 2030, but the report does allow for such a scenario by introducing to the index of supplyrisk a measure of the number of years to forecast depletion of reserves.Vulnerability to supply risk – i.e. the ‘economic importance’ of a mineral – is more challenging toestimate and there is no consensus among existing studies. One key study quantified economic importance9

ENV/WKP(2015)12as the substitutability of minerals, assuming that a mineral is more critical if few substitutes exist (NationalResource Council of the National Academies, 2008). Another major study embarked on a more elaborateassessment and identified how each mineral is used in different sectors, as well as how economicallyimportant these sectors are for the economy (European Commission, 2010, 2014). This latter approach isthe one this report takes.A weakness of existing studies is their static nature. Minerals criticality is a dynamic concept, asmarket fundamentals change over time. Structural change, shifting political risks, new technologies,changes in recycling behavior, the discovery of new substitutes, demand growth, environmental policiesbesides other factors, all affect criticality. Taking the full gamut of these dynamic factors into account isimpracticable, yet understanding the scope of potential changes in the set of critical minerals over the nextdecade and a half may be as important for policy actions that could be taken in the near future as assessingcurrent levels of criticality. By incorporating projections of the future sectoral co

This series is designed to make available to a wider readership selected studies on environmental issues prepared for use within the OECD. Authorship is usually collective, but principal author(s) are . Comments on OECD Working Papers are welcomed, and may be sent to: OECD Environment Directorate 2 rue André Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16 .

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