Successful Teachers, Successful Students: Recruiting And Supporting .
SUCCESSFUL TEACHERS, SUCCESSFUL STUDENTS:RECRUITING AND SUPPORTINGSOCIETY’S MOST CRUCIAL PROFESSIONWORLD BANK POLICY APPROACH TO TEACHERSTARA BÉTEILLE AND DAVID K. EVANSWORLD BANK GROUP
“Teaching is the professionupon which all other1professions depend.”
TABLE OF CONTENTSWHY WE NEED TEACHERS . 1SOME BASIC FACTS ON TEACHERS . 3MAKING TEACHING AN ATTRACTIVE PROFESSION . 9PROVIDING TEACHERS WITH THE TOOLS THEY NEED BEFORE ENTERING THE CLASSROOM . 20WHAT POLICIES FOR HIRING AND DISMISSING TEACHERS ARE MOST EFFECTIVE?. 25WHAT POLICIES CAN HELP SUPPORT AND MOTIVATE TEACHERS THROUGHTHEIR CAREERS? . 30HOW CAN EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY HELP TEACHERS TO TEACH EVERY STUDENT EFFECTIVELY? . 35CONCLUSION .37ENDNOTES . 39The authors would like to thank Jaime Saavedra, the World Bank’s Senior Director for Education, and Omar Arias,manager of the Global Engagement and Knowledge team in the Education Global Practice, for extensive guidance. Wewould also like to thank Juan Barón, Mary Breeding, Marcela Gutierrez Bernal, Ezequiel Molina, and Halsey Rogers forinputs and feedback.The five principles discussed in this policy approach draw upon the World Bank’s SABER Framework for EffectiveTeachers.
WHY WE NEED TEACHERS1
World Bank Global Platform for Successful TeachersFOR MANY STUDENTS, TEACHERS ARE THE ADULTSWITH WHOM THEY WILL INTERACT THE MOST.Successful teachers are likely to be the first role models thatyoung people encounter outside the home. They teachcontent, make learning fun, shape students’ attitudes,exemplify empathy, teach teamwork and respect, and buildstudent confidence in several ways. Effective teachersprepare students for a world where they must interact withothers, adapt quickly to change, and where success willhinge on knowledge as well as attitudes and behavior.Helping young people develop these skills is a complex task,especially when many come from deprived backgrounds. Itrequires routine human interface with people who combinedeep knowledge, a conviction that all students can succeed,and empathy. Successful teachers are irreplaceable in thistask—and will remain irreplaceable in the future.TEACHERS ARE SUCCESSFUL WHEN TEACHERPOLICIES ARE DESIGNED AND IMPLEMENTED IN AMANNER THAT ATTRACTS HIGH-ABILITYINDIVIDUALS, AND PREPARES, SUPPORTS ANDMOTIVATES THEM TO BECOME HIGH-PERFORMINGTEACHERS.A handful of countries, such as Finland, Japan and Singapore,boast a cadre of successful teachers. In most other countries— low-income, middle-income and high-income alike —teacher policies are either ineffective or lack internalconsistency. For instance, in many countries, entry intoteacher preparation programs lacks selectivity. Teacherqualifications are also set much lower than other profession.This immediately devalues the complexity of effectiveteaching. In even more, good teacher performance is notrecognized or rewarded. And in several countries, unpreparedand poorly trained teachers are expected to teach a complexcurriculum, which even they have a weak grasp on.Consequently, too many students across the world meetineffective teachers every day, every year, as they go throughschool. Many drop out. These students have spent the mostimportant part of their brain development years havinglearned little, while countries fail to recognize the costs ofineffective teachers and the benefits of investing in teacherperformance.THIS PAPER DESCRIBES THE VISION AND KEYPRINCIPLES GUIDING THE WORLD BANK’S SUPPORTTO COUNTRIES ON TEACHERS.The World Bank’s vision is to ensure all children are taught byeffective teachers, with education systems supportingteachers to do their best. Effective teachers are teachers whocombine deep content knowledge, high-quality practices,creativity and empathy to improve student learning today andtheir long-term readiness to learn. The World Bank considersit critical to observe the following principles to build cadresof effective teachers in middle and low-income countries:PRINCIPLE 1: Make teaching an attractive professionby improving its status, compensation policies andcareer progression structuresPRINCIPLE 2: Ensure pre-service education includes astrong practicum component to ensure teachers arewell-equipped to transition and perform effectively inthe classroomPRINCIPLE 3: Promote meritocratic selection ofteachers, followed by a probationary period, to improvethe quality of the teaching forcePRINCIPLE 4: Provide continuous support andmotivation, in the form of high-quality in-servicetraining and strong school leadership, to allow teachersto continually improve.PRINCIPLE 5: Use technology wisely to enhance theability of teachers to reach every student, factoringtheir areas of strength and development.2
SOME BASIC FACTS ONTEACHERS3
World Bank Global Platform for Successful TeachersTHE MOST EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS TO IMPROVE STUDENT LEARNING RELY UPON TEACHERS.For instance, in a review of interventions across low- and middle-income countries, teacher-driven interventions such asstructured pedagogy programs raised student language scores by 0.23 standard deviations and math scores by 0.14 standarddeviations. This corresponds to approximately nine months and six months of learning respectively. Such programs includelesson plans and training to help teachers deliver new content and materials to students, and sometimes include mentoringand feedback. In contrast, community-based monitoring, centering on information campaigns to increase accountability,raised language scores by only 0.12 standard deviations, while computer-assisted learning programs did so by only 0.01standard deviations. School-based management interventions actually had a small, negative association with test scores.Such interventions decentralize authority to the local level: school leadership, teachers, parents and community membersand poor results may be associated with weak implementation and capacity constraints. In short, the interventions with thelargest impacts worked through teachers.TABLE 1: THE MOST EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS WORK THROUGH TEACHERSINTERVENTIONSLANGUAGE GAINS (SD UNITS)MATH GAINS (SD UNITS)STRUCTURED PEDAGOGY0.230.14COMMUNITY-BASED MONITORING0.120.09COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING0.010.02SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT-0.010.01Source: Snilstveit et al. 2015.2A SUCCESSFUL TEACHER CAN MAKE A MAJOR DIFFERENCE TO A STUDENT’S LEARNING TRAJECTORY. 3Going from a low-performing teacher to ahigh-performing teacher increases studentlearning dramatically. The effect has beenmeasured from more than 0.2 standarddeviations in Ecuador to more than 0.9standard deviations in India —the equivalent of multiple years ofbusiness-as-usual schooling (Figure 1). 4 Incontrast, a mediocre teacher does very littleto prepare students for success. Effectiveteachers also have a substantial impact onthe long-term well-being of students,affecting not only their academicachievement and how far they will study,but also their income once they enter theFIGURE 1: THE IMPACT OF AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER ONSTUDENT LEARNING (SD UNITS)Moving from a 10th percentile teacher to 90th percentile teacher would increaselearning by.10.90.80.70.60.50.40.30.20.10EcuadorUS (low)UgandaPakistanUS (high)IndiaSource: Buhl-Wiggers et al. 2017; Bau and Das 2017.4
World Bank Global Platform for Successful Teacherslabor market.5 And teaching can be a tool for improving equity too: several years of outstanding teaching may in factoffset learning deficits of disadvantaged students.6IT IS, HOWEVER, DIFFICULT TO IDENTIFY WHO WILL BECOME AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER AND WHO WILL NOT.Most observed characteristics of teachers, such as educational qualifications, pre-service education and experience(beyond the first few years), do not predict how effectively teachers will help students learn, what is often termed the“value-added” that teachers provide. A study looking at the relationship between teacher characteristics and teachervalue-added in Pakistan found little relationship between teacher qualifications and teacher value-added in eithergovernment or private schools.7 Similarly, in India, a study found little relationship between the qualifications of privateschool teachers and teacher value add.8 These findings are in line with the international literature on teachervalue-added, which shows that the link between observable teacher characteristics and teacher value-added is weak.9This is not because qualifications and experience are not critical — they are — but their quality is often too low toinfluence student learning positively.BUT WE KNOW WHAT EFFECTIVE TEACHERS DO.Effective teachers share certain behaviors and practices. In a study of East Asia’s well-performing education systems —Japan, Korea, Singapore, China10 and Vietnam — a few things stand out. First, school systems in these countries ensureteachers have the requisite content knowledge and pedagogical approaches. In Shanghai, teachers come with strongcontent knowledge across a range of subjects, including English and Math.11 Teachers in Guangdong, China, performedat higher levels on a study assessing multiple dimensions of teaching than did teachers in other countries.12 Next, notonly are teachers in these systems prepared with the content and a deep understanding of how students will learn andpotential misconceptions, they are able to provide concise and accurate explanations of this content as well as modifyexplanations based on circumstances. Furthermore, their pedagogical approaches share certain characteristics. Forinstance, they identify alternative pathways for students to learn content, and they focus on stimulating thinking andlearning.GETTING CONTENT AND PEDAGOGY RIGHT IS, HOWEVER, JUST ONE PART OF THE JOB.Effective teachers do many other things, which may be difficult to detect until one sees a teacher in action. These tasksinclude planning and preparation, such as setting instructional outcomes; managing the classroom environment, by forinstance, establishing a culture for learning; instruction-related tasks, such as checking for student understanding oftopics; and professional responsibilities, such as communicating with families.13CLEAR, COHERENT, ALIGNED CURRICULA FACILITATE TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS.Teachers need to be adept not only in content and pedagogical approaches, they need a strong understanding of thecurriculum and learning goals for their discipline. Clear, coherent, and well-disseminated curricula, that areappropriately sequenced within and across grades, and that are aligned with learning materials make it easier for5
World Bank Global Platform for Successful Teachersteachers to accomplish their goals.14 In too many cases, and especially in developing countries, these resources are notavailable to teachers. Providing teachers with clear learning goals for content that is relevant, and appropriatelysequenced for age and grade level free teachers to devote time to planning and executing all the other tasks a goodteacher does. Education authorities are well served to ensure teachers have the clear and coherent curricula thatpromote learning.BEYOND A SMALL SET OF COUNTRIES, TEACHERS DO NOT APPEAR TO HAVE THE SKILLS NEEDED TO BEEFFECTIVE.While measuring teachers’ content knowledge is not straightforward and data are scarce, available studies are notencouraging.15 In Sub Saharan Africa, the World Bank’s Service Delivery Indicator (SDI) surveys in six countries showthat 84 percent of grade 4 teachers have not reached the minimum level of competence.16 In Lao PDR, only 2.4 percentof all teachers had a score of 80 percent or more on a test of Lao language and math, and the average score on a test ofpedagogy was 52 percent. A video study conducted in Indonesia that measured subject and pedagogical knowledge ofmath teachers found that nearly 60 percent scored below 50 percent.17 In Afghanistan, a detailed study of teacher skillsfound that teachers fell behind grade-level competencies in numeracy and literacy skills.18 For instance, 56 percent ofGrade 4 teachers could not solve a basic algebra problem. In Punjab, Pakistan, a recent study of public schools in threedistricts in Punjab, Pakistan, found that grade 4 math teachers correctly answered 77 percent of easy and mediumdifficulty questions from grade 3 and 4 math curricula and 65 percent of the questions from the grade 5 mathcurriculum.19 To teach grade 4 math well, teachers need to know grade 4 math competencies (and for earlier grades) aswell as more advanced competencies from grade 5. In Bihar, India, 25–33 percent of teachers were unable to answerbasic questions in math and language.20 For instance, when asked, “If 48 students are enrolled, and 36 are presenttoday, what percentage is absent?”, 36 percent could not answer.THERE ARE EVEN FEWER ASSESSMENTS OF TEACHERS’ PEDAGOGICAL SKILLS IN LOW ANDMIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES – AND THEY PAINT A SOBERING PICTURE.One of the few sources of data on teachers’ pedagogical skills — the World Bank’s SDI survey — suggests large numbersof teachers do not choose the most effective pedagogy when asked how they would teach. In Sub-Saharan Africa, only athird of teachers answered the pedagogical questions correctly in the best performing countries, Kenya and Tanzania. Inthe worst performing country, Mozambique, only 15 percent answered the questions correctly. In Afghanistan, while only65 percent of teachers could answer questions on number sequence correctly, their students perform considerablyworse, suggesting that even if teachers know the content they are unable to impart it to students.21 In Bihar, India,many teachers who had adequate content knowledge were weak in explaining concepts.22 For example, while almost80 percent of teachers could correctly answer a long division problem (3 digit by 1 digit), only 11 percent of them wereable to do all the steps correctly.6
THE SCHOOLS OF TODAY AND TOMORROW WILL DEPEND UPON TEACHERS BEING FACILITATORS MORETHAN EVER BEFORE.School systems in most countries have a long distance to cover in improving teacher quality today. Unaddressed, thesechallenges will only multiply as the demands from teachers increase. Teachers will need to empower every student torealize his or her potential. In the future, the skills that are likely to be valued most will continue to includedomain-specific knowledge, but will also include skills such as agility, creativity, empathy, perseverance, teamwork andfocus. These skills cannot be tested easily. Consequently, the role of teachers will need to shift to preparing students forsuccess in life versus merely preparing students for tests. Teachers will need to inculcate a growth mindset in students,whereby students feel motivated enough to put in the effort and tenacity needed to improve their fortunes. They willneed to focus on context mastery versus content mastery, that is, making lessons as relevant to a student’s real worldas possible.23 This means that teachers themselves will need to have a growth mindset and become life-long learners.7
WHY WE NEED TEACHERS: KEY MESSAGESMost effective educationinterventions work throughteachers, making teacher policydesign and implementationcrucial to improve studentlearning.In well-performing countries, teachers do more than justmaster subject and pedagogy — they help all studentslearn how to learn. These skills, along with cultivating agrowth mindset in students, will be important in schoolsof the future.In most countries, however, even the basics are not inplace, with teachers frequently knowing much less thanthey need to teach effectively. Even when they know thecontent, they are often not able to teach it. This is trueregardless of whether the country is low ormiddle-income.8
MAKING TEACHING ANATTRACTIVE PROFESSION9
World Bank Global Platform for Successful TeachersPROFESSIONS ARE ATTRACTIVE WHEN THEY PAYWELL, PROVIDE AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVETO WORK, BUILD INTRINSIC MOTIVATION, ANDOFFER LEARNING AND CAREER ADVANCEMENTOPPORTUNITIES. EACH OF THESE FACTORS ISPOLICY-AMENABLE.In addition to these, job prestige — the social statusgains from being in a particular profession versusanother — matters, but can be difficult to influence withpolicy. Prestige serves a sophisticated social function:whether a person’s job is perceived as prestigious or notcan have a huge impact on how they are viewed byothers and even themselves. Better pay, conducive workenvironment, intellectual rigor of the job, learning andcareer advancement opportunities may add to jobprestige, but so does job scarcity. Jobs that are scarceare also more likely to enjoy greater prestige. Thiscreates a challenge for teaching jobs; rising demand forschooling inevitably makes such jobs morecommonplace than scarce. Policy may need toovercompensate for the negative effects of statusdecline due to job abundance if it is to attracthigh-caliber candidates. This section discusseschallenges and opportunities.Teachers professional prestige matters — butteacher policies don’t target thisSTUDENTS LEARN MORE IN COUNTRIES WHERETEACHING IS A WELL-REGARDED PROFESSION.Teachers in OECD’s top-performing countries reportfeeling valued as teachers. For instance, in Korea andSingapore, teaching is a highly valued profession. In thesecountries, 68 and 67 percent, respectively, of teachersagree that teaching is valued in society.IN MOST COUNTRIES — BOTH WITHIN ANDOUTSIDE THE OECD — THE TEACHINGPROFESSION DOES NOT APPEAR TO ENJOY HIGHSTATUS.Teachers worldwide believe that teaching no longerenjoys the high social prestige it did thirty years ago.24Two-thirds of respondents from a global survey across21 countries (mostly high- and middle-incomecountries) judged the social status of teachers to bemost similar to social workers or librarians; only in Chinadid people compare teachers to doctors. On average, only27 percent of respondents believed that studentsrespected teachers.25 Parents are more likely toencourage their children to become teachers intop-performing education systems like Shanghai, Chinaand the Republic of Korea than in most Europeancountries, where respondents also think that studentshave less respect for teachers. This is echoed in surveyselsewhere as well. For example, 73 percent of teachersin rural schools in Ghana did not feel that they wererespected in the community.26 Another recent studyreached similar conclusions, with China at the top andBrazil at the bottom in terms of teacher statusrankings.27TEACHERS LIKELY PERCEIVE THEIRPROFESSIONAL STATUS AS INADEQUATE DUE TOSEVERAL FACTORS, EACH AMPLIFYING THEEFFECT OF THE OTHER.States and societies fail in many respects, diminishingthe professional status of teachers. Key factors includeteacher salaries, lowering of qualifications, poor workingconditions, expansion of the teaching force and limitedopportunities for learning and career advancement. InBangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, governmentteachers are paid less than other governmentemployees, such as government doctors, engineers and10
World Bank Global Platform for Successful Teacherslawyers.28 A study of sixteen countries in Sub-SaharanAfrica also found that teachers were paid less than theirpeers in other occupations. Some part of the lowermonthly pay of teachers is explained by fewer workhours; teachers’ hourly wages compare well with otheroccupations.29 But looking at the quantity of timeworked might not be a good metric for the effortexpended in teaching or the impact of effective teachingon human capital development relative to otherprofessions. Top-performing countries, such asSingapore and Japan, pay their teachers well againstprofessions such as engineering and law. They alsoselect the top students from a given high-school cohort.This gives teaching professional prestige in thesecountries. Furthermore, teachers often do not have thebasics to be effective, such as school supplies and basicinfrastructure.30 In Latin America, a documented declinein teaching prestige in recent decades appears to stemnot just from the massive expansion of schooling —something that has taken place more recently in otherparts of the world, such as Africa — but also fromchanges in the female labor market. Women whopreviously only had one clear careeropportunity—teaching— now have many, which is apositive move for society but means that teaching can nolonger count on automatically attracting the mostqualified women in the labor market.31TEACHERS THEMSELVES ENGAGE IN BEHAVIORAND ACTIVITIES WHICH UNDERMINE THEREPUTATION OF TEACHING.Such behavior includes high rates of teacher absence,little teaching when present, moonlighting as privatetutors and political activity. In Lao PDR, teacher absencerates hover at 16 percent. In India, there has been littlechange in teacher absence rates in schools over the10-year period between 2002 and 2012, with 24 percentof teachers in government schools absent on average on11any given school day. Among the nine countries insub-Saharan Africa participating in the SDI surveys,primary school teacher absence rates range from anaverage of 14 percent in Nigeria to 43 percent inMozambique.32 But the rates of teacher absence fromclass in all nine countries exceed the correspondingrates of absence from school by at least 20 percent, andas much as nearly five times. This suggests that in manycountries teachers may report to work but not beteaching for the required time. Schools rarely have asystem in place for covering teacher absences from theclassroom, so teacher absences mean that little or nolearning occurs during that time.TEACHERS OFTEN MOONLIGHT AS PRIVATETUTORS, WHICH COMPROMISES THEIRINTEGRITY AS TEACHERS AND DEVALUES THEPROFESSION.In Nepal, 32 percent of private school students and 38percent of government school students were beingtutored by teachers from their school.33 This mightreflect perverse incentives, with teachers performingsub-optimally during regular school hours to createdemand for their tutoring services.34 On the other hand,teachers might also provide tuitions because theirsalaries are low. In Cambodia, for instance, teachersalaries are low and often paid late, pushing teachers toprovide private tutoring to increase their income.Teachers are often used in political work — to the extentthis confers power on them, it could increase theirstatus; but if it deters them from teaching, then it couldcompromise job prestige. Finally, teacher union leadersoften mobilize teachers to undertake strikes againstteacher reform policies, which add to the sense of aprofession that is not interested in performance.
World Bank Global Platform for Successful TeachersSIMPLE COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES HOLDPROMISE FOR IMPROVING TEACHER STATUS.While improving teacher status involves addressingfactors such as compensation, career progression, entrycriteria and teacher preparation, discussed later in thispaper, communication strategies can play an importantrole. A study of teacher status, mostly in OECD countries,shows that perceptions of teacher status and factorsrelated to improving the status of teachers includebuilding awareness of the complexity and intellectualdemands of the job and teachers’ contributions tosociety.35 England, for instance, used severalcommunication strategies, including posters tocommunicate the importance of the teaching professionalong with the salary scale. The District of ColombiaPublic Schools system uses posters to emphasize theimportance of teachers, with the tagline: “You don’t needto be famous to be unforgettable.” In response to the lowstatus of teachers among students and their families,public schools in Delhi, India, are working to change theimage of teachers and make them more accessible toparents. To make teachers and schools more accessibleto students and parents, Delhi schools have organizedevents on Teacher’s Day (Samvaad, or dialogue) to bringteachers and students together to better understandeach other’s challenges and concerns both inside andbeyond the classroom. Parent-teacher meetings are alsoorganized on the same day in all Delhi public schoolsand heavily publicized to generate interest amongparents and create a culture where schools are perceivedas open institutions, with principals and teachers easilyaccessible to parents. Clearly, technology can play a keyrole in such communication campaigns, with the rise ofsocial media and electronic communication.TEACHER COMPENSATION PACKAGES TYPICALLYCOMPRISE THREE ELEMENTS — BASE PAY,BENEFITS AND ALLOWANCES — BUT RARELYBONUSES.Teacher compensation packages tend to have the firstthree, with a small number of education systems addinga bonus. Teachers base pay (and subsequent increases)is usually based on educational qualifications,experience and education level taught, with base payincreasing as qualifications, experience and level taughtincrease. In general, pre-primary teachers are paid theleast, while upper secondary are paid the most.Exceptions include Iceland and Israel, where apre-primary teacher earns at least 10 percent more thanan upper secondary teacher.THE TIME IT TAKES TO PROGRESS THROUGHDIFFERENT SALARY LEVELS, AND THEDIFFERENCE IN PAY BETWEEN ENTRY-LEVEL PAYAND SUBSEQUENT LEVELS, MIGHT BEIMPORTANT IN ATTRACTING HIGH-QUALITYCANDIDATES TO TEACHING.OECD’s most recent Education at a Glance shows thatwhile base pay increases with educational preparation(proxied by professional degrees) and experience in allsystems, countries vary significantly in terms of the timeit takes to reach the top of the salary scale and theamount of the change. For instance, in Greece, Korea andIsrael, lower secondary teachers reach the top of thesalary scale after 35 years of service, whereas inAustralia and New Zealand, it takes about 6-7 years.Similarly, salaries at the top of the scale are 108 percenthigher than starting salaries in Israel, but 67 percenthigher on average for the rest of the OECD. 36Teacher compensation policies are rarelystructured to attract the best or motivate them12
World Bank Global Platform for Successful TeachersTEACHING EFFECTIVELY IS A DIFFICULT JOB, BUTTEACHER PAY DOES NOT ALWAYS REFLECT THAT.Teaching is a complex job for all the reasons mentionedpreviously. Furthermore, its impact is long-term: aneffective teacher teaching forty students for thirty yearswould have made a lasting impact on the lives of 1200young people. Multiply this number by the number ofeffective teachers in a country, and the impact onproductivity and economic growth is easy to see. Asdiscussed in the previous section, teachers are typicallypaid less than other professionals on a monthly basis,but as they work fewer hours, their hourly pay compareswell with other professions. Looking at the quantity oftime worked might not be a good metric for the effortexpended in teaching or the impact of effective teaching,relative to other professions, on human capitaldevelopment. As discussed, several strong educationsystems, such as Singapore and Japan also pay theirteachers generously.ENSURING TEACHER BASE PAY IS COMPETITIVEWITH OTHER PROFESSIONS IS IMPORTANT FORTWO REASONS.37First, if teachers are paid in the top 20 percent of theearnings distribution of a country, then it is likely thatteaching will attract some of the most able graduates.Conversely, if teachers are poorly paid, then teaching willattract either the less able, or individuals using teachingas a “waiting room” before they get another job. Whilethere will always be individuals who work purely for theintrinsic rewards of the job, this is unlikely to be adominating factor.38 Second, and related to the first,improving teacher pay improves teachers’ standing in acountry’s national income distribution and hence thenational status of teaching. The higher the status, themore competitive the applicant pool is likely to be. Ofcourse, high pay alone will not guarantee student13learning, but low pay is unlikely to attract high-qualityindividuals to teaching and secure the learning gainscountries seek.NOT ONLY SHOULD TEACHER PAY BE FAIR ACROSSOCCUPATIONS, IT SHOULD ALSO BE FAIR ACROSSTYPES OF TEACHERS DOING THE SAME JOB.In several countries in South Asia and Africa,nonpermanent teachers — teachers hired for a fixedperiod of time or whose contracts can be terminatedrelatively easily — receive lower pay than theircounterparts on regular contract. While expected toperform the same job as regular teachers, the bar ontheir qualifications is lower, which explains their lowerpay. In reality, given the glut of teacher-applicants inseveral countries, those with the highest qualificationsare chosen for nonpermanent assignments. Theirqualifications are similar to regular teachers; yet, theyend up being paid less. This creates a sense ofunfairness and disenchantment among such teachers.INITIAL TEACHER PAY (AND SUBSEQUENTINCREMENTS) TEND TO BE BASED ON FACTORSTHAT ARE NOT KEY TO IMPROVING STUDENTLEARNING — EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONSAND YEARS OF EXPERIENCE.Educational qualifications in most low andmiddle-income countries are of low quality, and whilethey provide candidates a qualification, they rarelyprepare teachers adequately for their jobs (discussedsubsequently). Similarly, the years of experience in ateaching job might have little impact on student
e ective teachers, with education systems supporting teachers to do their best. E ective teachers are teachers who combine deep content knowledge, high-quality practices, creativity and empathy to improve student learning today and their long-term readiness to learn. The World Bank considers
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