Games As A Tool For Teaching English Vocabulary To Young Learners
Available online at www.worldscientificnews.comWSN 53(2) (2016) 67-109EISSN 2392-2192Games as a tool for teaching English vocabularyto young learnersJanina GrussDepartment of English Language,Higher School of Foreign Languages name of Samuela Bogumila Lindego,59 Św. Marcin Street, 61-806 Poznan, PolandE-mail address: btskoki@wp.plABSTRACTThe purpose of the thesis is to analyse the issue of vocabulary teaching with the use of gamesand plays. The main aim of the paper is to examine the effectiveness of the use of games in vocabularyteaching. Chapter one, first of the two theoretical chapters, defines basic terminology related tovocabulary. It is based on research literature, and it focuses on the understanding of ‘vocabulary’ and‘the word’, provided by various researchers. Chapter one also reports the role of L1 in the languageteaching, and an impact of the corporal studies, on the development of the vocabulary teachingpractices. Chapter two provides the definition and classification of games. Games have been divided interms of their structure, function, the use and the required L1 proficiency of the students. The Chapterpresents the way teachers introduce games during their lessons, and highlights the factors thatcontribute to choosing games by the teachers. Moreover, certain possible dangers resulted fromplaying games have been presented in the Chapter two. Detailed analysis of research literatureconfirmed previous hypothesis that games constitute a crucial element of teaching English in youngchildren. The empirical Chapter provides the description of three games used for teaching English, andcompares their effectiveness. The games have been tested on different age groups. The thesis endswith the conclusions on the theoretical and empirical chapters.Keywords: games; English teaching; young learner; vocabulary; definition of lexis; definition ofvocabulary item; functions of games; classification of gamesReviewer:Dr. Marek Derenowski, Kalisz, Poland
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES70INTRODUCTION711. TEACHING AND LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE VOCABULARY721.1. Definition of vocabulary721.2. Defining a word731.3. The knowledge of a word – basic elements741.4. Vocabulary knowledge – mental lexicon761.4.1. Receptive and productive acquisition of vocabulary761.4.2. Process of learning vocabulary in children’s second language learning761.4.3. Influence of first language in building vocabulary of second language –Competition Model781.5. Criteria for vocabulary selection791.6. Corpus in teaching and learning vocabulary822. GAMES IN TEACHING YOUNG LEARNERS832.1. Play, games and simulation842.2. Defining and describing games842.3. Functions of games852.4. Types of games852.4.1. Types distinguished on basis of function and structure862.4.2. Types distinguished on basis of language skills882.4.3. Types distinguished on basis of learners’ skills and second languageproficiency882.5. Factors affecting the choice of games892.6. Implementing games during the lesson902.7. Possible negative outcomes of using games in foreign language classroom913. THE STUDY933.1. Aims of the study933.2. Description of the participants933.3. Instruments and procedures94-68-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-1093.4. Presentation of results953.5. Discussion of the results993.6. Weaknesses of the study1013.7. Pedagogical es106Abstract in Polish109-69-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109LIST OF TABLES & FIGURESTablesTable 1. Vocabulary parts according to Wray73Table 2. Knowing about a word75Table 3. Some environment factors and their effects on vocabulary course design79Table 4. The four strands and their application with a focus on vocabulary81Table 5. Test results measuring the effectiveness of games employed98Table 6. Results of a survey showing which game children liked the most ineach group99FiguresFigure 1. Course-designing elements Nation (2001: 381)80Figure 2. Number of children making mistakes. Group A96Figure 3. Number of children making mistakes. Group B97Figure 4. Number of children making mistakes. Group C98Figure 5. Number of learners in percentage in all groups together markingparticular game as most entertaining99-70-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109INTRODUCTIONTeaching a foreign language to children might often generate controversies since theyare not yet fully competent speakers of their first language. It seems, then, that first theyshould develop their L1 competence before they can go to another language. There is,however, a different point of view on that matter showing that just as children develop theirL1 competence they can also develop L2 competence at roughly the same time and under verysimilar circumstances. It is natural, of course, that teaching a foreign language to childrenneeds to have a completely different form than a regular language instruction at secondaryschool, for example. In this way, developing appropriate conditions for teaching is based onimplementing the elements of L2 into a number of games and entertainment-orientedactivities which children participate in with enthusiasm. The main focus of this thesis, then, isto examine the effectiveness and enjoyment of vocabulary games for teaching foreignlanguage to children.The opening chapter of the MA thesis concentrates on vocabulary showing it as animportant component of L2 competence. Thus, the concept of a word is defined and theknowledge of vocabulary explored showing that there is much more to this issue than themeaning of words. The first chapter discusses also how vocabulary may be acquired andstored by learners as well as what particular factors determine selection, presentation andprocessing of vocabulary with learners.The second theoretical chapter looks at the nature of games by exploring itspedagogical potential. Thus, basic features and types of games are discussed along withfactors determining the choice and implementation of games in order to achieve a specificpedagogical aim. The entertaining nature of games as well as the possible problems orchallenges in using games are also discussed in some depth.The last chapter looks at the subject matter taking a practical perspective. It contains adescription of a personal study focused on using games for teaching L2 vocabulary tochildren. The features of subjects, conditions of teaching, tools as well as the entire procedureare, then, provided in some detail. Moreover, the chapter also presents the results obtainedwith reference to the effectiveness of teaching as well as the enjoyment brought by particulargames.-71-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-1091. CHAPTER ONE. TEACHING AND LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGEVOCABULARYThe content of this chapter concentrates on the process of teaching and learning L2vocabulary items. The opening part defines what vocabulary is showing also various levels ofword knowledge which reflect particular levels of L2 competence that learners reach. Thechapter also looks at the criteria which determine selection of words to teach as well as therole of corpora in developing learners’ L2 lexicon.1.1. Definition of vocabularyIn general terms, vocabulary as such can be perceived from various perspectives since,as Finch (2000: 102) notes, it can be seen as an all words of a given language or an internalknowledge possessed by speakers of that language. It is also possible to state that“Vocabulary is the glue that holds stories, ideas, and content together and vocabularyfacilitates comprehension” (Rupley, et al. 1998: 99). The main idea of the definitionspresented above is considering vocabulary as a separated unit of instruction in secondlanguage acquisition. At the end of the 1980s, Lexical Approach represented by Lewis andWollis (1998, as cited in Rupley, et al.: 99-102), proved the essential role of vocabulary inSLA.Insights of Basanta (2010: 170-175) were significant and in her psychopedagogicmodel of learning vocabulary, she declared that: “lexical competence lay at the heart ofcommunicative competence and hence was crucial to ELF teaching/learning. At the glance,vocabulary in perceived as an important part of foreign language acquisition, and numerousresearch are conducted in this field” (Basanta 2010: 175).As Ur (2003: 60) notes, vocabulary can also be referred to as a set of words. However,such a description seems to be very simple failing to reflect all the important features of alexical sphere of language. Various dimensions of vocabulary as such can be noticed whentaking a look at the areas from which vocabulary is explored and examined such aspsychological, corpus linguistics, language competence, formulaic speech and the like. As Ur(2003: 60) continues:Vocabulary can be defined, roughly, as the words we teach in the foreignlanguage. However, a new item of vocabulary may be more than just a singleword: for example, post office, and mother-in-law, which are made up oftwo or three words but express a single idea. A useful convention is to coverall such cases by talking about vocabulary ‘items’ rather than ‘words’ (Ur,2003: 60).Taking a closer look at the depth of vocabulary it explored with the development oftools within corpus linguistics it can be seen that a word and vocabulary are two related, butdistinguishable elements of linguistic study. Moreover, apart from words alone vocabularyencompasses a wider number of units (Wray 2002: 9). The table below illustrates this numberof units.-72-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109Table 1. Vocabulary parts according to Wray (2002: 9).ChunksFormulaic speechMultiword entionalized formsHolophrasesReady-made utterancesClustersLexical bundlesWhen referring to longer lexical units, Nation (2001) uses the term ‘patterns’ whichcan be used interchangeably for all kinds of collocations, idioms etc. As, naturally, vocabularyis about words, its better understanding can be gained when explaining what a word is.1.2. Defining a wordOn the surface, it seems natural to recognize what a word is so that a person with nospecific knowledge in linguistic is able to state that the items such as black or run are wordswhich are used for a specific reason and so, they serve particular functions in sentences.However, taking a deeper look at words, there is much to be considered (O’Grady 2004: 117).In order to explain what w word is it could be useful to resort to some basicdefinitions. Therefore, Finch (2000: 132) states that a word constitutes: “a unit of expressionwhich native speakers intuitively recognize in both spoken and written language”. ForFrawley (2003: 377), words are not fully independent elements as they are composed of yetsmaller elements. The author defines a word as “a linguistic unit that carries meaning andconsists of one or more morphemes which are linked together”. A more detailed and a longerdefinition is provided by Crystal (1994:226) who defines a lexeme in particular describing itas follows:Lexeme: the smallest, distinctive unit in the lexicon of a language; alsocalled a lexical item. The term was introduced to avoid ambiguity in the term‘word’ when discussing vocabulary. A lexeme may consist of a single worde.g. table or more than one word i.e. phrasal verbs. Also a lexeme is anabstract notion, subsuming a range of variant forms (Crystal 1994: 226).As can be seen, the definition pinpoints that there is a difference between a lexeme anda word as such. The first one is a single unit while the latter can be more elaborated as it caninclude two words. A word is an independent meaningful unit of language being pronouncedin some particular way. An important feature of words is that their meaning is arbitrary. Itmeans that their physical attributes are not related with the attributes of the things, objects orplaces they refer to (Poole 1999: 9).Taking yet deeper look at words, the elements such as if, the, or by are consideredwords even though, they do not (on the surface) meet the criterion that words need to bemeaningful units of language. Therefore, these words do have their own meanings but itcannot be easily noticed when they are used in isolation. Comparing them to such words as-73-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109book or doll the meaning of such words is completely different. The other two words areimmediately associated with specific elements while the first three words need to furthercontext to be interpreted somehow. This shows that word as a linguistic item can be examinedand defined from different perspectives (Todd 1995: 40-50). In this way, Todd (1995: 50)states that there are some basic criteria in describing words. The first one is a morphologicalcriterion on the basis of which book as a noun and book as a verb (e.g. to book a ticket) are asingle word because their form is unchanged. However, book and books are two differentwords because their form is different. Another criterion is based on orthography so that wordsare separated with a space in a piece of text. This means that each element with a space onboth sides in a text is a separate word. It cannot be used to differentiate between words inspoken language. There is also a lexical sense of a word so this time book as a noun and bookas a verb are seen as two separate words because their meaning is different.As can be seen although it seems relatively easy to state what a word is a closer look atthis matter reveals various layers from which words can be examined. This also affectslearning new words since, as could be noticed, there is many more elements concerning wordsthan their meaning. The element accounting for the knowledge of words are discussed in thenext section.1.3. The knowledge of a wordDefining what does a word mean is one thing, but it is also important to note how theknowledge of words is acquired. Thinking about little children who learn to speak, then theyalways start with words used for labelling, so that the concept, for example, of a cat has aname cat. But of course not every animal is a cat. The child needs to learn how far to extendthe concept of a cat. “In other words, acquiring a vocabulary requires not only labelling butalso categorising skills” (Thornbury 2002: 18). The child has to realise that these commonwords like cat can be replaced by superordinate terms like animals. It is important for child tomake a cognitive judgement about the word. Children have to develop some kind of networkbuilding – constructing some complex idea. Than during this process they will realise therealso exist words like synonyms, homonyms, etc. (Thornbury 2002: 18-23). Nation (2001:27)provides concise account of range of word knowledge:-MeaningWritten formSpoken formGrammatical characteristicsCollocationRegister constraintsFrequencyAssociationsThese are known as types of word knowledge. These types are acquired by languagelearners at various stages of their cognitive and linguistic development. As far as younglearners are concerned, they acquire many new words but this knowledge is only partial asthey are not able to spell the words they know. This part of word knowledge is acquired lateronce they develop their general literacy skills. In this way, developing an internal system of-74-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109L2 vocabulary constitutes a continuous and a long-lasting process (Nation 2001: 21-27). AsNation (2001: 23) asserts, the complexity of vocabulary causes that “there are many degreesof knowing”.Cameron (2001:76-77) explores various aspects of word knowledge which arepresented in the table below. The researcher relied on the study by Schmitt and Maera(1997:18) as well as Ellis and Sinclair (1990:99), who, in turn, followed Richards (1976) andNation (1990). The elements of word knowledge present as follows:Table 2. Knowing about a word (Cameron, 2001: 77)Type of knowledgeWhat is involvedReceptive knowledge:Aural/decodingTo understand it when it isspoken/writtenmemoryTo recall it when neededConceptual knowledgeKnowledge of the spokenform: phonologicalknowledgeGrammatical knowledgecollocational knowledgeOrthographic knowledgePragmatic knowledge,knowledge of style andregisterConnotational knowledgeMetalinguistic knowledgeexampleTo use it with the correctmeaningTo hear the word and topronounce it acceptably, onits own, and in phrases andsentencesTo use it in a grammaticallyaccurate way; to knowgrammatical connectionswith other wordsTo know which other wordscan be used with itNot confusing protractorwith compassesTo hear and produce theendings of verb forms, suchas the /n/ sound at the end ofundertakenShe sang very well not *shesang very good; to know thatis and be are parts of thesame verba beautiful view not * agood-looking viewTo spell it correctlyProtractor not *protracterTo use it in the right situationTo know its positive andnegative associations, toknow its associations withrelated wordsTo know explicitly about theword, e.g. its grammaticalproperties-75-Would you like a drink? Ismore appropriate in a formalor semi-formal situation thanwhat can I get you?To know that slim haspositive connotations, whenused about a person, whereasskinny is negativeTo know that protractor is anoun; to know that pro is aprefix
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109There is an interrelation between the number of aspects known by learners about agiven word and a type of word knowledge. This leads to a distinction between active andpassive knowledge of words which can also be discussed in terms of receptive and productiveacquisition of vocabulary (Cameron 2001: 76-79). This issue is discussed in the followingsection.1.4. Vocabulary knowledge – mental lexiconAt this point, it might be useful to note not only what is acquired together with ameaning of new words but also how the knowledge of words is structured. In other words, thefeatures of mental lexicon , according to Hulstijn (2000: 210) constitute “a memory system inwhich a vast number of words, accumulated in the course of time, has been stored”.1.4.1. Receptive and productive acquisition of vocabularyAs Nation (2001: 26) notes, “Passive vocabulary, according to Corson (1995),includes the active vocabulary and three other kinds of vocabulary -words that are only partlyknown, low-frequency words not readily available for use and words that are avoided inactive use”. Corson’s (1995) idea is not based on receptive and productive mastery of wordsbut rather on whether or not a given word is used by the student. A learner might know agiven word well being able to use it at any moment in speech or writing even though s/hedoes not use these words very often (names of holidays for example). In many cases, though,the less often a given word is used the poorer the knowledge of these words learners have sothat they can forget some of the aspects (remember meaning but forget spelling for example).DeKeyser and Sokalski (1996) prove that receptive and productive knowledge requiredifferent forms of practice. They question the fact that receptive acquisition provides allknowledge needed to productive use. On the contrary Ellis and Beaton (1993: 548-549) showa slightly different perspective stating that receptive and productive knowledge need to beaccessed differently especially at the early stage of developing L2 proficiency. Foreign word L1 translation means that the only way for young learners to access a foreign word is to relyon their L1 and translate it.The study on receptive and productive acquisition involves many areas and variousperspectives. Nevertheless, it is important to explore this area in order to understand whylearners are able to use some words actively while other ones are only recognized by them ina text or during conversation. Noting how this process takes place might be useful whilepreparing and designing lessons and tasks focused on vocabulary optimising the effects ofteaching (Ellis-Beaton 1993: 532-561).1.4.2. Process of learning vocabulary in children’s second language learningYoung learners acquire the language beginning from single words going upwards toentire sentences. Learners explore syntactic rules by learning new words and observing howthey function next to one another in sentences. As was already mentioned, knowing a givenwords is based on getting to know its various aspects which means that there should be aspecific order at which specific elements of words should be known. As Ur (1996: 60) states,after the form of a word learners should focus on its grammar, collocations, meaning and-76-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109word formation. In the form pronunciation and spelling should be mentioned. “The learnerhas to know what a word sounds like (its pronunciation) and what it looks like (its spelling)”(Ur 1996: 60).The grammar of a new item also needs to be taught. Again, depending what level thelearners are they should be taught to follow some grammatical rules. For example, whenteaching nouns, it might be useful to present their plural forms, also regular and irregular (girl-girls, mouse-mice). When teaching verbs, learners’ attention could be drawn to their pastforms, especially if the verb is irregular (forget-forgot). The meaning of the word is firstlyword’s reference to the real world, named also word denotation (Ur 1996: 60-65).Discussing how new words are learnt by students, Nation (2001: 23) mentions theconcept of the so called ‘learning burden’. The author states, that the more an item representspatterns that learner is already familiar with, the learning of this item is easier (Nation 2001:23). Taking this into consideration can be helpful for teachers in preparing the lessons andtasks focused on vocabulary which require from learners much less mental strain to acquirenew words. It might be useful, then, to help students rely on their L1 when learning L2 words(Nation 2001: 23-28). Thus, the words which do have similar equivalents in L1 are mucheasier for students to learn, e.g. computer in English and komputer in Polish.As Cameron (2001) underlines, immersion language learning “younger children (7-8years) seem to pay more attention to sound and prosody (the ‘music’ of an utterance)”. It isalso important to remember that young learners still develop their L1 competence whichmeans that some elements of language can be difficult for them to discuss as they do notknow them well enough even in their mother tongue.At 7 years of age, children are still learn the skills needs for discourse. in tellingnarratives, for example, children are still learning how to create thematic structure throughlanguage, are still developing the full range of uses of pronouns and determinates”(Karmiloff-Smith 1986- 175).Harmer (2007: 81) states that: “we might expect children of primary age to acquiremuch of a foreign language through play, for example, whereas for adults we can reasonablyexpect a greater use of abstract thought”. Children are generally believed to memorize newwords easily perceiving intonation and pronunciation. Young age might, then, be anadvantage in developing L2 proficiency as children’s speech apparatus is still forming. Thismeans that it is still flexible enabling learners to produce various kinds of sounds of L2 whichare generally not encountered in L1. Moreover, openness of young learners to novelty andvarious forms of interaction might also be an advantage in learning L2 (Okoń, 1987).However, as Komorowska (2005: 120-121) pinpoints, it is also important to remember thatyoung age of children entails some negative aspects. Learners encounter and memorize manynew words but they also quickly forget them. In addition, they have a very short attentionspan which makes it necessary for the teacher to use a wider number of short activities inorder to keep learners interested and focused on L2 content.It is also important to note that Young Learner aim at active communication in L2which can be seen in the way they use language schemes and content words as entire phrases.Single word sentences used by students do not include morphological markers but they docarry meaning. This type of communicating is referred to as telegraphic speech and it can alsobe noticed as one of the phases in developing L1 competence (Patton et al. 1994: 111-112).-77-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109A further set of skills and features of young learners which can also be related inacquisition of L2 vocabulary are identified and put forward by Halliwell (1992: 3), who statesthat young children:-are already very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily understanding theindividual words;already have great skill in using limited language creatively;frequently learn indirectly rather than directly;take great pleasure in finding and creating fun in what they do;have a ready imagination;above all take great delight in talking (Halliwell 1992: 3).Keeping in mind the basic characteristics, skills and predispositions of young learnersmight be highly useful in helping them develop L2 vocabulary as some are directly and othersindirectly involved in this process. Another important aspect in developing L2 lexicon isinterrelation between L1 and L2 words. This issue is discussed in the subsection below.1.4.3. Influence of first language in building vocabulary of second language –Competition ModelCameron (2001: 14) introduces the notion of ‘Competition Model’ of linguisticperformance is a theory that explains how first language learning may affect subsequentsecond language development”. In light of this model it is assumed that there are “cues” at alllevels of proficiency which enable learners to encode meaning. As Cameron notes: “studiescarried out across different languages have led to the important conclusion that childrenbecome sensitive to the reliability of cues in their first language from early infancy”(2001:14). They try to implement L1 structures to communicate in L2. This, however does not referto bilingual learners.As McCarthy (1994: 41) holds, when a learner notices a given word in a written forms/he is able to provide its meaning. As a result, there need to be some links in learners’ brainsbetween the particular pieces of information concerning new words. In fact, the examinationof the way L2 lexical items are remembered is not easy as it is naturally linked to lexicon oflearners’ first language. A general view on storing L1 and L2 words assumes functioning ofthe so called three-dimensional model. The knowledge of grammatical properties, in turn, isinterrelated with the knowledge of semantics. McCarthy (1994: 41) underlines that the linksbetween these areas concerning vocabulary are often fragile which can be inferred from thefact that learners can remember only one element. For example, they might know the spellingof a given word being unable to recall its meaning or they can write a given word down being,at the same time, unable to pronounce it correctly.The interrelation and interference of L1 with L2 vocabulary is also based on the waythe words of the two languages are stored in the brain. The researchers put forward varioushypotheses concerning this theory (Hulstijn 2000). Hulstijn (2000: 216) presents four basichypotheses such as:-78-
World Scientific News 53(2) (2016) 67-109a) The extended system hypothesis – there is a single store in learners’ brains for L1 andL2 vocabulary. This might generate greater interference of L1 vocabulary with L2lexicon.b) The dual system hypothesis – in light of this hypothesis there are completely twoseparate stores in learners’ brains. One stores vocabulary of the native language whilethe other vocabulary of a foreign language.c) The tripartite hypothesis – in light of this hypothesis learners have three stores at theirdisposal. One of them stores vocabulary items in L2 and L2 which share some rangeof semantic characteristics (cognates). The other two stores are to keep vocabularyitems unique to L1 and L2.d) The subset hypothesis – assuming the existence of one single store irrespective of thenumber of languages that a learner speaks. It is, however, subdivided into varioussubsets with one for each language a learner speaks so that vocabulary items of L1 andL2 are not stored togetherTeachers might follow one of these hypotheses and adjust the process of teachingaccordingly which indicates that they might have a direct influence on how vocabulary ispresented, processed and practiced in the FL classroom. It often happens that learners do notconcentrate that much on the relationship between words in terms of their semantic propertiesas they more often focus on the similarities or any kinds of relationship between L1 and L2words. It appears that phonological similarity between L1 and L2 words constitutes the mostreliable point of reference for the learners expanding L2 vocabulary (Takac 2008: 14).1.5. Criteria for vocabulary selectionThe important issue in teaching vocabulary is designing the vocabulary component oflanguage course. Following the model presented below, Nation (2001: 381) indicates thatselection and implementation of vocabulary for teaching in the FL classroom is determined bya number of interrelated factors. The figure below illustrates this number of factors.The aim in teaching vocabulary is not developing L2 lexicon alone but also linking itwith learners’ needs, examination of the teaching conditions as well as following specificrules in student-teacher interaction. Nation (2001: 380) distinguishes four basic types ofvocabulary such as “high-frequency, academic, technical or low-frequency words”. Followingthe model presented above, it is necessary to examine the overall environment in whichlearners develop their L2 proficiency and lexicon. The exemplary environmental factors andthe effects they have are presented below:Table 3. Some environment factors and their effects on vocabulary course design(Nation 2001: 384).Environment factorThe eff
1.4. Vocabulary knowledge - mental lexicon 76 1.4.1. Receptive and productive acquisition of vocabulary 76 1.4.2. Process of learning vocabulary in children's second language learning 76 1.4.3. Influence of first language in building vocabulary of second language -
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