Encouraging Student Autonomy Through Higher Order
29ENCOURAGING STUDENT AUTONOMY THROUGHHIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLSVictoria D. Smith , Grand Canyon UniversityJanet W. Darvas, Grand Canyon UniversityABSTRACTThis article discusses how to empower students to work, think, and act independently in the highereducation setting. Inspiring students to progress through the stages of Bloom’s Taxonomy emboldensWKHP WR GLVFRYHU LQWULQVLF PRWLYDWLRQ DQG VHOI UHJXODWHG OHDUQLQJ 7KLV DUWLFOH GH¿QHV DQG IRFXVHV RQ WKH importance of teaching intrinsic motivation through higher order thinking skills, reliance on materialsprovided for success, and metacognitive assessment. Additionally, this article provides examples of waysto implement student autonomy in the traditional and online classroom settings.Keywords: higher order thinking, Constructivism, Bloom’s Taxonomy, Self-regulated Learning, highereducation, learning motivation, distance learningINTRODUCTIONInstructors in any modality—traditional, onOLQH RU K\EULG²RIWHQ ¿QG WKDW LQVWLOOLQJ DXWRQRP\ LQ VWXGHQWV D FKDOOHQJH WKDW VRPH PLJKW HYHQ ¿QG is a fruitless endeavor. However, regardless of theoutcome, encouraging student autonomy is a worthy endeavor because it will enable students tothink critically and take ownership of their workin all areas of life. The purpose of this article isto teach instructors the importance of encouraginghigher order thinking in all teaching modalities,show how intrinsic motivation enables studentsto achieve autonomy, and demonstrate how Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) help studentsachieve autonomy.ConstructivismConstructivism is the theory that students learnand understand better when they can make meaning out of the knowledge presented to them (Notar,Wilson, & Montgomery, 2005). People learn in social environments and teachers must try to put information into contexts that allow students to makemeaning of what the instructor teaches. Learningis then based on what a student already knows. Instructors need to allow for varied interpretations ofinformation because students come from diversebackgrounds and bring just as diverse knowledgeto a course when it begins (Notar et al., 2005).Figure 1. Bloom’s TaxonomyBenjamin Bloom theorized that learning occursLQ OHYHOV FFRUGLQJ WR *DUYHU DQG 5REHUWV “Bloom developed the taxonomy for the cognitivedomain of learning—a linear progression throughknowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,and synthesis to evaluation” (p. 18). The synthesis,evaluation, and creation levels relate to knowledge,GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Journal of Instructional Research Volume 6 (2017)and instructors can adjust learning to encouragestudents to move through the cycle from the lowerlevels of learning to the higher levels. Garver and5REHUWV ZULWHLower levels of learning are important,but a meaningful learning experiencemust include the two highest levels fromBloom’s taxonomy of learning—synthesisand evaluation. In short, synthesis is theability to plan, create, or do the topic area.Evaluation is the ability to rate or critique aplan, creation or work done in the contextof a given subject matter. (p. 17)When an instructor encourages students tomoves through the cycle of Bloom’s stages, he orshe simultaneously encourages student autonomy.One way to encourage students to move throughthe cycles and reach the highest levels of learningis to provide direct, clear expectations about thecourse. When students conduct peer reviews inthe online modality, they often hesitate to thinkcritically about how to handle problems in peerreview forums—for example, confusion regardingwhom to review, what to do when their peers failto review their essays, etc.—and often approachthe instructor for guidance. While instructors needto and should be available to answer students’questions, they can also enable students to empowerthemselves and handle situations that occur in theclassroom.Providing a document such as a peer reviewprocess letter that explains what the peer reviewforum is and how to handle inevitable problemsthat occur during peer review sessions can help.An instructor should construct a letter thatreminds students that the peer review process isentirely student driven and is a place to learn aboutcooperative work. The document also needs to makeclear that students need to complete peer reviewsin a timely manner and take it upon themselves toreach out to peers when someone does not meet adeadline, as they would in a work environment.Instructors can also make students aware of what toexpect in terms of instructor feedback throughoutthe course, give encouragement, and let studentsknow they are available for help. This letter shouldnot only articulate responsibilities of the student,but also make clear what students can expect interms of instructor feedback—feedback that, forGRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY30example, might decrease in volume throughout thecourse but at the same time empower the student tolearn their own writing strengths and weaknessesand assess them accordingly.In the traditional classroom, students mightexpress concerns about hurting their peers’ feelingsduring a peer review and hesitate to offer criticismof a peer’s writing or at worst refuse to participatein the process altogether. When this occurs, aninstructor can simply remind the students thatunwillingness or fear of participating in peerreview not only affects the reviewer (e.g., receivinga lower grade or a zero for not completing thepeer review), but it also affects the one reviewedbecause they either did not receive a review or didnot receive an honest one and could potentiallyUHFHLYH D ORZHU JUDGH RQ WKH ¿QDO GUDIW RI WKH HVVD\ When instructors reiterate to the class that essaygrades and participation grades are “on the line,”so to speak, it helps students to understand themagnitude of peer review.AutonomyThe term autonomy refers to student-centeredlearning values in which an instructor creates asafe learning environment where students feelcomfortable interacting with instructors andpeers; in this learning environment, studentstake responsibility for their own learning. KeDQG .ZDN ZULWH ³OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQWV should emphasize personal relevance by providingconcrete, personal-relevant experiences that serveas catalysts for constructing individual meaning”(p. 102). Contextualizing course material inscenarios relatable to students’ personal beliefsand experiences makes course material moreaccessible to the student and helps them rememberthe concepts taught. Instructors can teach studentsself-regulation and motivation in tandem withteaching them autonomy. Vonderwell, Liang andAlderman (2007) assert:Learners need regular practice inassessment to become self-monitoringand independent. Online learners need tomanage their own learning through selfand peer-assessment, discovery learning,UHÀHFWLRQ DQG DUWLFXODWLRQ 6WXGHQWV QHHG WR take an active role in planning, monitoring,DQG WKHQ UHÀHFWLQJ DQG HYDOXDWLQJ QRW only the learning tasks but the process of
31learning as well. These processes requirea learning environment that supports thisactive student role (p. 311).While for some motivation is innate, it canbe taught to and learned by those who may notnaturally possess it. This can be achieved by givingclear, concise tools and consistent reminders tostudents. That way the repetition and the tools givethe student a safe framework within which to besuccessful. Creating a class web site that includesVSHFL¿F SDJHV IRU HDFK DVVLJQPHQW DQG SDJHV WKDW DGGUHVV ) 4V VSHFL¿F VWUDWHJLHV IRU WKH RYHUDOO subject, and links to outside helper sources is a toolthat can be used throughout the class. Remindingstudents to go to the web site for answers, andLQFOXGLQJ WKH OLQN WR D VSHFL¿F SDJH DOORZV VWXGHQWV to learn they can access information on their own,even when the instructor is not available. Whenstudents understand they have the tools they needfor success with one assignment, it motivates themto take initiative with subsequent assignments.Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic MotivationThe online environment, especially theasynchronous modality, is a good environmentfor teaching intrinsic motivation because eventhough students can email instructors and writeto them in the built-in forums provided within thecourse’s learning managements systems, they lackthe advantages of having an instructor to offerextra encouragement in person that the traditionalclassroom affords. Therefore, the asynchronousmodality is often the perfect place for students tolearn how to self-motivate. Ronald Girmus (2011)writes, “Intrinsic motivation represents the innerdrive or passion people have to excel in a particularpursuit. Extrinsic motivation represents the driveto achieve external rewards, such as money orVRFLDO VWDWXV S ,QWULQVLF PRWLYDWLRQ UHIHUV to motivation that is personally rewarding, whileextrinsic motivation refers to motivation that stemsfrom an individual’s need to avoid punishment.Girmus (2011) argues:Individuals with a strong interest in aVSHFL¿F DUHD DUH LQWULQVLFDOO\ PRWLYDWHG WR succeed in that area of endeavor. Individualinterest tends to be stable and long-lasting.Situational interest is generated by certainconditions or stimuli in the environmentthat focuses attention. (p. 3)Individual interest and intrinsic motivation“are highly related, perhaps even synonymous”as are extrinsic motivation and situational interest*LUPXV S GGLWLRQDOO\ PRWLYDWLRQ DQG interest can be learned, and the asynchronousonline environment is an optimal place for teachingintrinsic motivation. An example of individualinterest is a student who sets a goal to earn an A ina course because he or she genuinely wants to learnas much as possible in a course and is naturallywilling to put in the effort and hard work requiredto achieve that goal. Situational interest, on theother hand, involves a student setting a goal toearn an A in the course due to GPA requirementsthat require them to make a certain grade in orderto remain enrolled in college. In all modalities,instructors can teach students intrinsic motivationby creating a safe space where students can engagein self-regulated learning.Self-regulated LearningSelf-regulated Learning (SRL) is “an activeprocess in which students plan, monitor, andcontrol their cognitive, metacognitive, andmotivational processes as they pursue their ownlearning goals” (Mihalca, 2014). SRL is the processby which students explore their thoughts, feelings,and actions toward the learning in which they areimmersed. For SRL to be accurate, students needto understand what they are observing about theirlearning processes and see it through a clear lens. Itis the instructor’s responsibility to teach students’different perceptual lenses. Perhaps the best wayto reach the majority of students in a diverseclassroom is to offer information at the beginningRI FODVV WKDW VSHFL¿FDOO\ WHOOV WKHP KRZ WR VXFFHHG in the course. Using clear, concise writing inhandouts or postings in the classroom, and thenensuring students understand your guidelines forVXFFHVV KHOSV VWXGHQWV VWDUW D FODVV ZLWK FRQ¿GHQFH &RQ¿GHQFH WKHQ HQDEOHV VWXGHQWV WR UHJXODWH WKHLU own learning. Examples might include a quiz onthe syllabus, a syllabus scavenger hunt, or an inclass game, Jeopardy style, which helps studentsunderstand the expectations of the class. Thisprocess can be performed with each assignment aswell, particularly if the instructor has not personallywritten the curriculum. In SRL, students look atthe assignments presented, determine a courseof action with a clear goal, and execute the plan. IWHU D JRDO LV FRPSOHWHG WKH VWXGHQW VHOI UHÀHFWV GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Journal of Instructional Research Volume 6 (2017)allowing the metacognitive process to help themrecall, organize, and make further meaning of whatthey have learned.MetacognitionMetacognition is concerned with cognition.Students consider and then reveal what they knowand how they learned what they know. Metacognitionencourages learners to pause several times in aFRXUVH EXW HVSHFLDOO\ DW D FRXUVH¶V FORVH WR UHÀHFW upon their own learning. In the metacognitiveSURFHVV VWXGHQWV ¿UVW DVFHUWDLQ ZKDW LV H[SHFWHG of them (both in terms of individual assignmentsand in the overall course). Once students are clearabout what is required, they devise a strategy forFRPSOHWLQJ WKH WDVN )LQDOO\ VWXGHQWV UHÀHFW EDFN RQ the process of learning and determine if the processworked, how well their strategies worked, how theyIHOW ZKLOH OHDUQLQJ DQG ¿QDOO\ ZKDW WKH\ OHDUQHG ,QVWUXFWRUV FDQ DVN VWXGHQWV WR UHÀHFW XSRQ ZKDW facts they have learned (declarative knowledge)and methods for performing activities (proceduralknowledge) (Vonderwell, Liang, & Alderman,2007, Figure 7). Examples of assignments to assistZLWK PHWDFRJQLWLRQ LQFOXGH D VHOI UHÀHFWLYH ZULWLQJ worksheet with prompts that allow students torecall what they have learned, a reverse graphicorganizer with headings that helps students reverseand write about their learning process, and endof-course self-surveys. Metacognition is related toautonomy because metacognition determines thelearner’s ability to control his or her own learning(Vonderwell et al., 2007). The more studentsare able to manage the SLR process, the greaterautonomy they have. An increase in autonomyincreases students’ intrinsic motivation towardlearning.Instructor as ObserverIn the online environment, instructors need tomonitor student perceptions of assignments, theirprocesses of learning, and students’ application ofknowledge. An indicator that students are unableto accurately perceive an assignment would bewhen the majority of learners in the class fail theassignment. If an assignment is unclear, the SRLprocess is much less effective because the lensis certainly not clear. In the online discussion forums allow instructors to see stringsof conversations that will also give indication ofGRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY32student comprehension. Instructors can then creatematerials to assist students with areas of the learningprocess that are not clear, thus assisting studentswith the SRL process. Examples of these materialscould include Classroom Assessment Techniques(CATS), forum posts, class web sites, and linksto additional resources. CATS are formativeassessments placed in the classroom to help bothstudents and the instructor evaluate comprehensionand learning (Angelo & Cross, 1988).An instructor who allows students to explorethe learning within the context of a well-organizedclassroom space should use a professional, kind,and caring demeanor. By setting the tone and clearexpectations, instructors provide personalizedlearning while still promoting autonomy. Theinstructor becomes an observer when he or shegives students the space to learn. For example,discussions should be student-controlled anddriven with the instructor stepping in only whennecessary (to ask thought-provoking questionsor to add to the discussion). As an observer, theteacher can provide ample motivation by knowingthe student body. Of course, humor is alwayswelcome. For example, one instructor uses a letterin week one of her online classroom with thetitle “UNV 104, PHI 105, ENG 105, oh my!” thatscaffolds previous courses to the current course,ENG 105. The letter recaps concepts students havelearned in the previous courses, such as how towrite headers, headings, thesis statements, in-textcitations, and reference pages, and then proceedsto explain that students will need to use thatknowledge in ENG 105, as well. The instructorends the letter with examples and an opportunityfor students to share what they have learned for anopportunity to earn participation points. The aboveexample accomplishes the goals of setting courseexpectations, reminding students they can applyprior knowledge to the current course, and usinghumor to help students remember the material inthe post while simultaneously setting the tone forthe course.In the traditional classroom, one can alwaysscaffold during the semester or quarter throughverbal reminders of previous course materialand making connections between current coursecontent and content studied earlier in the semester;for example, if one were teaching VictorianLiterature in a survey course, one could remind
33students of aspects of Medieval Literature theystudied since the Victoria era often hearkened backto the Medieval era.CONCLUSIONCharles Notar, Janell Wilson, and MaryMontgomery (2005) assert that an effectivedistance learning model includes the following:embedded learning activities in an overarchingscenario, the use of pictures—not text—if possible,embedded data needed to solve problems in thelearning context, multiple links among concepts,knowledge from multiple perspectives, activelearning techniques, continual self-assessment, andexposure of students to expert performance. Thesame is true of traditional and hybrid modalities.Providing students with the same opportunities,as mentioned above, encourages students to selfregulate their learning and become autonomousin the learning process. These design factors,when implemented, encourage students to takeresponsibility for their educational success. It isessential for instructors to monitor and assess eachstudent’s metacognitive process, as metacognitionis the key to self-regulated learning.GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Journal of Instructional Research Volume 6 (2017)REFERENCESAngelo, T., & Cross, K. (1988). Classroom AssessmentTechniques: A Handbook for College Teachers. SanFrancisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Garver, M. S., & Roberts, B. A. (2013). Flipping & clicking your wayto higher-order learning. Marketing Education Review 23(1),17–21. doi:10.2753/MER1052-8008230103Girmus, R. (2011). How to motivate your students. Paperpresented at the New Mexico State University-Grants Round8S &RQIHUHQFH *UDQWV 10 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ¿OHV HULF ed.gov/fulltext/ED534566.pdfKe, F., & Kwak, D. (2013). Constructs of student-centered onlinelearning on learning satisfaction of a diverse studentbody: A structural equation modeling approach. Journalof Educational Computing Research, 48(1), 97–122.doi:10.2190/EC.48.1.eMihalca, L. (2014). Why prompting metacognition incomputer-based learning environments. Cognitie, Creier,Comportament/Cognition, Brain, Behavior, 18(4), 299–314.Notar, C. E., Wilson, J. D., & Montgomery, M. K. (2005). Adistance learning model for teaching higher order thinking.College Student Journal, 39(1), 17–25.Vonderwell, S., Liang, X., & Alderman, K. (2007). Asynchronousdiscussions and assessment in online learning. Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education, 39(3), 309–328.GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY34
Self-regulated Learning Self-regulated Learning (SRL) is “an active process in which students plan, monitor, and control their cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational processes as they pursue their own learning goals” (Mihalca, 2014). SRL is the process by which students explore thei
Creating an Autonomy-Supportive Classroom Environment for Student Success . Objectives Differentiate between an autonomy-supportive vs a . Students in an Autonomy Supportive environment are: - Creative - Intrinsically motivated - Exhibiting greater conceptual understanding
autonomy modes and the capability to shift between them on the fly [7]. II. DESCRIPTION OF THE SLIDING SCALE AUTONOMY SYSTEM Our system was modelled on the INEEL robot control architecture [7], which consists of four discrete autonomy modes: Teleoperation: In this mode, the user controls the robot directly without any interference from .
interstellar applications. In their 2010 Robotics, Tele-Robotics and Autonomous Systems Roadmap, NASA takes a more direct approach at defining autonomy. “Autonomy, in the context of a system (robotic, spacecraft, or aircraft), is the capability for the system to
eDiscovery Legal Hold . (Gartner Magic Quadrant) Open Text Strength of Strategy Autonomy IBM CA g HP EMC Quest Symantec Source: Gartner, Forrester Research. AUTONOMY LEADS THE DATA MANAGEMENT INDUSTRY WITH MEANING BASED COMPUTING Network Effec
Biographical Statement: Katharine O. Strunk is the Clifford E. Erickson Distinguished Chair in Education and Professor of Education Policy and, by courtesy, Economics at Michigan . stepping stone for improving teaching and learning, but the process of distributing autonomy to schools is complex. Future research should examine autonomy .
part of the process of psychological development, involving a transformation in family relationships (Steinberg, 1999). The multidimensional nature of adolescent autonomy led to distinction of three types of autonomy: emotional, behavioural and value auto
problem-solving and decision-making skills than robots and AI today possess. In fact, the needs of the persistent autonomy problem remain poorly mapped out. This report seeks to examine more broadly some of the technological solutions that are needed before we will see a robust persistent autonomy take shape in the world.
an approach that allows one or more human operators to share control authority with a high-level behavior controller. This collaborative autonomy decreases the completion time of manipulation tasks, increases the reliability of the human-robot team, and allows the operators to adjust the robotic system's autonomy on-the-y.
