Design And Performance Of A Low-cost Acrylic Reflector For A 7x .
Design and performance of a low-cost acrylic reflector for a 7x concentrating photovoltaic module Kara A. Shell*a, Scott A. Browna, Mark A. Schuetza, Robert J. Davisb, Roger H. Frenchc a Replex Plastics, P.O. Box 967, Mount Vernon OH 43050 b Nanotech West Lab, The Ohio State University, 1381 Kinnear Road, Columbus OH 43212 c Case Western Reserve University, 302 White Hall, 10900 Euclid Ave, Cleveland OH 44106 ABSTRACT Replex Plastics aims to develop a low-cost, low-concentration photovoltaic module using a metallized acrylic reflector designed for use with an inclined single-axis tracker. An asymmetric compound parabolic concentrator is developed and analyzed optimizing the many factors impacting the design, such as tracking strategy, manufacturing process, and cell size. Ray tracing is used to improve the design as well as predict the performance. Results of the simulation closely match the tested performance of the prototype. The final design is an asymmetric compound parabolic concentrator mounted to an encapsulated silicon cell receiver with a system optical efficiency of 60%. The prototype concentrator achieves 7x increase in power output over an encapsulated receiver with no reflector. Keywords: compound parabolic concentrator; CPC; low concentration photovoltaics, CPV, LCPV, acrylic reflector 1. INTRODUCTION The recent push for drastic cost reductions in the deployment of solar electricity production has renewed interest in concentrating photovoltaic systems (CPV). The goal of CPV systems is to replace expensive PV material with inexpensive lenses or reflectors made of glass, plastic or metal, significantly reducing the cost of the overall system. CPV systems can be separated into three categories: high concentration ( 100x), medium concentration (30-100x) and low concentration ( 30x). Low-concentration photovoltaics (LCPV) avoid the complex optical and thermal management systems required for high-concentration designs. Moreover, high-concentration photovoltaics (HCPV) generally have optics with acceptance angles on the order of one angular degree, while LCPV systems retain a higher acceptance angle, decreasing the tracking accuracy requirements and related costs. Because of the larger acceptance angle, LCPV systems can capture diffuse circumsolar radiation. Thus they are deployable in mid-northern latitudes, whereas HCPV systems are only economical in high direct normal irradiance (DNI) climates1. A major benefit of low-concentration systems is reduced tracking accuracy requirements, lowering the balance-ofsystems (BOS) costs and improving the reliability of the module. To further minimize BOS costs, Replex elected to use a single-axis inclined tracker. Single-axis inclined trackers operate by rotating a central beam that is inclined at a fixed angle – usually latitude. These trackers are less complex than dual-axis trackers and can be spaced closer together, resulting in a better power yield (W/m2) for a solar field. The cost of a single-axis tracking system is roughly half that of a dual-axis tracker2. The optical design of the CPC is driven by this technology choice. For the LCPV system developed by Replex, a metallized acrylic reflector was chosen based on Replex’ 20 years of experience with forming and metallizing plastics. An asymmetric compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) was designed to optimize performance for a single-axis tracking 7X concentrating system using commercially available laser-groove buried contact (LGBC) silicon photovoltaic cells4. The effects of truncation, metallization surface, and off-axis illumination were studied using ray tracing software. Testing of prototype CPCs verified the simulated results with onsun optical and electrical performance. *kara@replex.com; phone 740-397-5535; fax 740-397-5548; www.replex.com High and Low Concentrator Systems for Solar Electric Applications VI, edited by Kaitlyn VanSant, Raed A. Sherif, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108, 81080A · 2011 SPIE · CCC code: 0277-786X/11/ 18 · doi: 10.1117/12.897763 Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108 81080A-1 Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 01/29/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
2. OPTICAL DESIGN Several factors impacted the design of the CPC, including a) the use of an inclined-single axis tracker, b) the desire to capture the circumsolar component of solar radiation, c) geometries of commercially available silicon cells, and d) fabrication using a thermoforming process. The resulting asymmetric CPC has an acceptance angle of 23.5º in the nontracking direction to allow for seasonal variation in the sun’s declination angle. The half-acceptance angle in the nontracking direction was determined by a number of influences. The half-acceptance angle must be 5º to capture the largest component of the diffuse circumsolar radiation5 and to allow for tracking error. The target geometric concentration factor for the CPC was 10X. The CPC needed to be manufacturable using Replex’ existing thermoforming equipment. Thermoforming becomes more difficult the greater the area to depth ratio, a.k.a. the area of plastic material you have to pull the part from versus the depth of the part. This created a practical limit for the height of the CPC versus the input aperture area. Another complication is the different heights of the two sides of the CPC. CPC height is based on the half-acceptance angle, θHA, and the width of the exit aperture. Therefore, the two opposing sides of the CPC will have vastly different heights, unless the exit aperture dimensions are adjusted to compensate. The dimensions of the exit aperture must be an even divisible of the silicon wafer size, to ensure the cells are an optimum yield from each wafer to minimize cost. The wafers used to produce the LGBC silicon cells used in the LCPV module are 125mm x 125mm. Truncation to about half of the fully developed CPC height results in a good relationship between concentration and mirror area3. Therefore the design targeted for θHA and exit aperture dimensions to result in the CPC height in the non-tracking direction to be approximately half of the CPC height in the tracking direction. Both sides of the CPC were truncated to match. Ray tracing was conducted using TracePro6 software to optimize the above variables. The resulting CPC had a θHA of 23.5º in the non-tracking direction and a θHA of 12.1º in the tracking direction. The selected cell had a length to width ratio of 2.2:1, balancing the heights of the opposing sides of the CPC. The CPC was truncated to a height of 143mm to allow for thermoforming of prototype parts. 143mm Figure 1. Completed prototype CPC formed from acrylic, trimmed, metallized and painted. 2.1 Mirror substrate selection A common cause of premature failure in concentrating systems is degradation caused by increased ultra-violet exposure on the CPV system materials. To minimize this effect, reflective mirrors have been developed with different ultra-violet (UV) absorption edges, such that the acrylic mirror has a reflectance cutoff of 400, 375 or 335 nm respectively for UVA, MP and UVR mirror grades as shown in Figure 2. Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108 81080A-2 Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 01/29/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
Figure 2. Reflectance vs. wavelength for three mirror types with varying UV absorption edges The choice of reflector cutoff allows for the system design to control the amount of UV exposure incident on the encapsulated PV cells. At the same time, the lifetime and stability of these UV absorption edges is an important issue for the overall system durability and lifetime7. For the LCPV system, Replex Solar UVA mirror was chosen to absorb the UV portion of the spectrum at the mirror, and eliminate the increased UV radiation at the encapsulated cell. 2.2 Aluminum vs. silver metallization Aluminum and silver metallizations were compared for use on the LCPV prototype. Metallized flat coupons were measured using a Filmetrics F10-UV reflectometer. Figure 3 compares the reflectivity of silver and aluminum second surface mirror. Results show that silver offers higher specular reflectance, averaging nearly 96-98% over the visible, while aluminum averages 87-89%. Figure 3. Reflectance versus wavelength for aluminum and silver second surface acrylic mirror. Despite the better reflectivity, the durability of silver mirror is of concern. The long-term durability of both mirror types was compared using both artificial and natural weathering conditions. Artificial weathering was simulated using an accelerated QUV chamber. Samples were exposed to 540 hours of ASTM G154, which cycles 8 hours at 1.55 J/m2 UV exposure at 70ºC with 4 hours of darkness at 50ºC with condensation. These conditions resemble a Florida-type environment with cyclic changes in UV and heat, and the addition of moisture to the system. Aluminum showed less than 1% reduction in specular reflectance in the visible range, while silver showed a 17% reduction. Reflectance curves before and after accelerated weathering are shown for both mirror types in Figure 4. Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108 81080A-3 Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 01/29/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
ALUMINUM SILVER Figure 4. Reflectivity of aluminum and silver mirror before and after accelerated QUV weathering exposure Silver mirror shows a significantly greater decrease in reflectivity after weathering than the aluminum mirror. The risk incurred from the use of silver mirror outweighs the improved optical efficiency. Therefore aluminum mirror was chosen for the LC2PV system design. 2.3 First vs. second surface metallization The mirror metallization can be applied to either the front or back surface of the substrate. A first surface mirror has a greater optical efficiency than a second surface mirror because of losses incurred from refractive errors, as well as transmission and absorption in the substrate. Ray tracing of the CPC reflector indicated first surface mirror would have a 79% optical efficiency while second surface mirror would only achieve a 68% optical efficiency. However, first surface mirror eliminates the positive effects of the UV absorption edge and requires an optically clear, weatherable protective coating to protect the metallization. Such a coating would result in higher costs and development time. A second surface mirror results in lower initial optical performance, but is durable and requires no expensive coatings or tie-layers. The Replex LCPV system uses a second surface mirror because of the additional cost and risk incurred with a first surface mirror. 2.4 Analysis of optical performance Using TracePro, small changes were made in the optical design to determine what combination would produce the best optical efficiency of the system. The optical efficiency of the system, OEsystem, is defined as the amount of light incident on the cell surface divided by the amount of light entering the CPC. The illumination model for the ray tracing assumed direct normal irradiance with randomly placed rays of 546 nm wavelength at a uniform intensity of 1000 W/m2. At least 10,000 rays were typically traced for a design. The physical shape of the CPC, acrylic thickness, and receiver materials were evaluated. The base design condition consisted of an acrylic CPC, truncated to the fully-developed height in the non-tracking direction, with perfect mirror (100% reflectivity) applied to the back surface of the substrate. The cell was laminated beneath a layer of single-strength glass and ionomer encapsulant. Table 1 gives the material properties and thicknesses for the base case. Table 1. Refractive indices and thickness of materials used in the analysis MATERIAL Acrylic Glass ("single-strength") Ionomer encapsulant REFRACTIVE INDEX 1.49 1.46 1.49 THICKNESS (MM) 1.397 2.38 0.508 One variable was changed for each ray tracing iteration, and the change in optical efficiency was compared to the base case. The physical shape of the CPC, the size of the exit aperture compared to the cell, the acrylic thickness and the coversheet material were varied to compare performance. Based on the results of the individual variables, the shape of the CPC was modified to include a 10mm radius and the exit aperture size was increased by 2mm in both directions. This shape increased the optical efficiency by 8.5% and was the final one used for the prototypes. Table 2 shows the results of the analysis. Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108 81080A-4 Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 01/29/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
Table 2. Analysis of design variables to improve optical efficiency. CPC ITERATION OEsystem* 0.67 Base case Inc. exit aperture 1mm each side 0.65 Inc. exit aperture 2mm each side 0.60 Add 2mm radii to edge 0.68 Add 5mm radii to edge 0.68 Add 10mm radii to edge 0.68 Change acrylic thickness to 1mm 0.67 Change acrylic thickness to 3mm 0.66 Use “Double-strength” Glass (3.2mm) 0.66 Use 1mm thick Glass 0.68 eflon coversheet (0.1 mm thick) 0.68 0.72 Final combination *100% reflective, second surface mirror was used for this analysis % INCREASE FROM BASE -3.1% -9.9% 1.5% 2.5% 2.6% 1.0% -1.2% -0.8% 1.5% 2.6% 8.5% Using an aluminum reflectivity of 87%, the Gen1 design was found to have an optical efficiency of 60%. The geometric concentration factor of the final CPC was 10.3, but the ratio of the CPC entrance aperture area to the cell surface area was 11.45, allowing for a greater than 6x concentration factor on the cell. Ray tracing predicted an average illumination of 6.870 kW/m2 on the cell, with hotspots up to 26x incident on the cell surface. Figure 5 shows the predicted illumination pattern incident on the cell. Cell Area Figure 5. Expected irradiance pattern on the cell indicating an average irradiance of 6870 W/m2. 2.5 Off-axis illumination analysis Because the CPC is designed to operate on a single-axis, low-accuracy tracker, it will operate most of the time without pointing directly at the sun. The effect of tracker misalignment and variation in declination angle on output was studied by ray-tracing a CPC intentionally misaligned from the source. Table 3 shows the ray tracing results, clearly indicating the severe drop off in output outside of the CPC half acceptance angles. Surprising however was the significant decrease in output when the CPC was tilted close to the half-acceptance angle, with up to 54% of the light lost. This indicated that the half-acceptance angle should be even greater in the non-tracked direction so that performance of the LCPV could be maintained throughout the summer and winter. Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108 81080A-5 Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 01/29/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
Tilt Angle in Tracked Direction Table 3. Percent of maximum cell illumination with misalignment of CPC. The highlighted area is within the limits of the CPC half-acceptance angle. -20 -13 -10 -5 0 5 10 13 -30 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.3% 0.0% 0.3% 0.6% 0.6% -24 0.6% 3.2% 12.0% 13.2% 13.1% 13.2% 12.0% 3.2% -20 0.7% 17.9% 46.0% 68.6% 74.3% 68.6% 46.0% 17.9% 20 0.5% 0.6% 0.7% 3. Tilt Angle in Non-tracked Direction -10 0 10 0.6% 25.4% 0.6% 24.1% 25.4% 24.1% 75.0% 80.9% 75.0% 95.4% 99.8% 95.4% 97.1% 100.0% 97.1% 95.4% 99.8% 95.4% 75.0% 80.9% 75.0% 24.1% 25.4% 24.1% 0.6% 25.4% 0.6% 20 0.7% 17.9% 46.0% 68.6% 74.3% 68.6% 46.0% 17.9% 24 0.6% 3.2% 12.0% 13.2% 13.1% 13.2% 12.0% 3.2% 30 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.3% 0.0% 0.3% 0.6% 0.6% 0.7% 0.6% 0.5% PROTOTYPE TESTING The 3D CAD file of the final CPC design optimized with ray tracing was used to produce a single-form prototype thermoforming tool. CPC prototypes were mated with single-cell prototype receivers to test their performance. Receivers consisted of a single silicon cell encapsulated with an extruded aluminum heat sink and glass cover. Figure 6 shows a completed unit prototype assembly. Figure 6. An assembled unit prototype. Includes an acrylic CPC mounted to a receiver with an aluminum heat sink, encapsulated silicon cell, and glass cover sheet. Prototype receivers were mounted on a tiltable test stand and I-V curves were measured with and without concentrators. The irradiance was monitored continuously, and results were normalized to an equivalent irradiance level. Figure 7 shows the I-V curve for a prototype receiver with and without a CPC. The unit with a CPC showed a 6.6x higher Pmax, closely matching the predicted increase in average irradiance (6.87x)8,9. The slightly lower results is thought to be due to a small amount of scattering introduced into the CPC front surface by the mold as well as electrical losses in the prototype leads. Not only did the concentration closely match the predicted output, but the visible illumination on the pattern was very similar to that expected. Figure 8 is a picture of the visible irradiance pattern on the cell by a prototype pointed directly at the sun. Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108 81080A-6 Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 01/29/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
3 2.5 Current (I) 2 Receiver w ith CPC Receiver Only 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Voltage (V) Figure 7. I-V results of a single unit prototype with and without a CPC. These I-V scans were taken in outdoor direct sun at 1000 W/m2 illumination. Figure 8. Irradiance pattern visible on the cell surface in direct sunlight The testing fixture was designed so that the CPC could be pointed off-axis in known increments. An I-V curve was taken at each tilt angle combination and compared to the output directly pointed at the sun (0,0). The current for all of the measurements was normalized to the average during the test period, 965 W/m2. Table 4 shows the percent decrease in Pmax with misalignment, which matched very closely to the predicted results shown in Table 3. The significant loss in output when nearing the half-acceptance angle is verified in these results. Table 4. Measured percent of maximum cell illumination with misalignment of CPC. Cells with a “-“ indicate combinations where measurements were not made. The highlighted area is within the limits of the CPC half-acceptance angle. Tilt Angle in Tracked Direction Tilt Angle in Non-tracked Direction -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 20 - 2% 3% 3% 1% 1% - 10 24% 31% 38% 45% 40% 19% - 0 2% 63% 95% 100% 90% 33% 2% -10 1% 40% 52% 63% 50% 23% 1% -20 2% 7% 13% 13% - 5% - 4. CONCLUSIONS An acrylic reflector for a LCPV system to be mounted on an inclined single axis tracker was successfully designed, built and tested. The materials used and metallization strategy were selected to maximize the durability of the module and allow for low-cost production using a thermoforming process. Ray tracing was used to evaluate many potential Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108 81080A-7 Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 01/29/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
variables in the design without having to build and test multiple prototypes. The results of the iterative ray tracing improved the optical efficiency of the base CPC design by 8.5%. The optical efficiency of the final CPC design was 60%, using Replex UVA acrylic substrate and second surface aluminum mirror. The prototypes were produced using a thermoforming process. Measurements of the power output from the prototypes indicated that actual performance closely matched that predicted in the ray tracing simulation. A further learning was the poor performance of the CPC near the limit of the half-acceptance angle, verified with testing. The concentration factor achieved with the design was 6.87x, and successfully met the goals of the development work. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work has been supported by the Ohio Third Frontier Photovoltaics Program under grant numbers 08-038 and TECH 10-051 in collaboration with the Ohio Wright Center for Photovoltaics Innovation and Commercialization (PVIC) and the Solar-durability and Lifetime Extension Center (S-DLE) at Case Western Reserve University. REFERENCES [1] Kurtz, S., “Opportunities and challenges for development of a mature concentrating photovoltaic power industry,” Technical Report, National Renewable Energy Lab, TP-520-43208 (2009). [2] Swanson, D., “The Promise and Non-Promise of CPV Technology – From the Past Until Today,” CPV-6 conference, Freiburg, Germany (2010). [3] O’Gallagher, J.J., [Nonimaging Optics in Solar Energy], Morgan & Claypool Publishers, San Rafael, CA,7-10, 3946 (2008). [4] Cole, A., Heasman, K.C., Mellor, A., Roberts, S., and Bruton, T.M., “Laser grooved buried contact solar cells for concentration factors up to 100x,” Proc. 2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 834847 (2006). [5] Buie D., and Monger, A.G., “The effect of circumsolar radiation on a solar concentrating system,” Solar Energy 76, 181-185 (2003). [6] TracePro, Lambda Research Corporation, Littleton MA, www.lambdares.com. [7] French, R.H., Rodriguez-Parada, J.M., Yang, M.K. Lemon, M.F., Romano, E.C., and Boydell, P., “Materials for Concentrator Photovoltaic Systems: Optical Properties & Solar Radiation Durability,” CPV-6 conference, Freiburg, Germany (2010). [8] Shell, K.A., Brown, S.A., Schuetz, M.A., Davis, R.J., French, R.H., “Performance of a low-cost, low-concentration photovoltaic system,” Proc. of CPV-7 Conference, Las Vegas, NV (2011). [9] Schuetz, M.A., Shell, K.A., Brown, S.A., Reinbolt, G.S., French, R.H., Davis, R.J., “Design and construction of a 7x low-concentration photovoltaic system based on compound parabolic concentrators,” Proc. of IEEE Photovoltaics Specialist Conference, Seattle, WA (2011). Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108 81080A-8 Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 01/29/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
The goal of CPV systems is to replace expensive PV material with inexpensive lenses or reflectors made of glass, plastic or metal, significantly reducing the cost of the overall system. CPV systems can be separated into three categories: high concentration ( 100x), medium concentration (30-100x) and low concentration ( 30x).
Collectively make tawbah to Allāh S so that you may acquire falāḥ [of this world and the Hereafter]. (24:31) The one who repents also becomes the beloved of Allāh S, Âَْ Èِﺑاﻮَّﺘﻟاَّﺐُّ ßُِ çﻪَّٰﻠﻟانَّاِ Verily, Allāh S loves those who are most repenting. (2:22
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Update performance goals in the performance goal plan for the current performance period being evaluated in Perform2Achieve. New users will need to enter their performance goals. 2. Complete Annual Performance Appraisal. Enter Performance Goals for Next Year. 3. Complete the annual performance appraisal process using Perform2Achieve.
Die holder design (a) Design flow for lower die set Punch design Punch plate design Backing plate design Punch holder design (b) design flow for upper die set Diagram 5. Design flow of punch & blanking die sets When punch holder, guide bushing, guide post and die holder are placed in one unit, we call this as “Die set”. When put together, this is called dies with die set. 1.2 Design flow .
The diagram below shows the first four of a series of designs that an artist draws on artwork. Design 1 Design 2 Design 3 Design 4 The artist wants to use a design with a maximum of 15 shaded circles. Which design number should the artist use? a. Design 5 b. Design 6 c. Design 7 d. Design 8
Defining Design and Creation Design Science and Design Science Research Design Science Know-how for creating artifacts Design is both a process and a product Design Science Research Creation of missing knowledge Design of novel or innovative artifacts Analysis of the use and performance of artifacts Problem solving paradigm
Performance Appraisal: Setting work standards, assessing performance, and providing feedback to employees to motivate, correct, and continue their performance. Performance Management: An integrated approach to ensuring that an employee’s performance supports and contributes to the organization’s strategic aims. Comparing Performance .
