Small-scale Mushroom Cultivation - 2, Agrodok-41
Agrodok 41Small-scale mushroomcultivation - 2Agaricus and VolvariellaBram van Nieuwenhuijzen
Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen, 2007.All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photocopy,microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.First edition: 2007Author: Bram van NieuwenhuijzenEditor: Janna de FeijterIllustrators: Bernard Lamote, Barbera OranjeDesign: Eva KokTranslation: Rob Barnhoorn (language editing)Printed by: Digiggrafi, Wageningen, the NetherlandsISBN Agromisa: 978-90-8573-083-5ISBN CTA: 978-92-9081-365-1
ForewordThe first Agrodok on ‘Small-scale mushroom cultivation’, Agrodokno. 40, describes the technique of mushroom cultivation on substratesthat only need heat treatment. Certain mushroom species however,like the Rice Straw Mushroom (Volvariella spp.) and the ButtonMushroom (Agaricus spp.) can only be cultivated on fermented substrate or compost. Rice Straw Mushrooms are cultivated in the warmerclimates of the tropical regions, whereas the growing of the ButtonMushrooms predominantly takes place in more moderate climates.The process of composting for mushroom cultivation is more complexthan the preparation of temperature treated substrates. For that reasonit seemed appropriate to publish a second Agrodok that meets the demand and covers the lack of information on this specific subject. Itdescribes the complete process of composting of agricultural wastes aswell as the cultivation of the appropriate species mentioned above.Moreover, it proves to be necessary to treat the process of obtaininggood quality spawn and spawn production (propagation material) indetail in a separate chapter.Special emphasis has been put on the minimum requirements forgrowing conditions, mushroom houses and equipment for both speciesin order to avoid problems and to be cost-effective.Additionally, attention has been given to harvesting and post harvesthandling. A high demand for processed (mostly canned) mushroomsdoes exist in suburban and urbanised regions. Consequently the basicsof mushroom processing have been covered in a separate chapter.Whereas knowledge on marketing in the field of small-scale mushroom cultivation is still rather poor, it also seemed appropriate to add achapter on marketing in which the importance and possibilities of thelocal and regional market(s) are pointed out.September 2007, Bram van Nieuwenhuijzen and Janna de FeijterForeword3
Contents1Introduction22.12.22.3Biology of mushroomsFungiLife cycle of fungiTemperature ranges of cultivated mushrooms889123Mushroom farms1344.14.24.34.44.54.64.74.84.94.10Spawn productionAvailability of spawnClean environmentsThe sterilisation processPreparation of mediaPreparation of slantsCulturesThe starter cultureTissue culturesMother spawnPreparation of the final 6.46.5Cultivation of Button Mushrooms (Agaricus spp.)Pasteurisation or peak heatingSpawningCasingHarvesting and pickingCase description Button Mushrooms4242434446477Cultivation of Rice Straw Mushrooms (Volvariellaspp.)Case description Rice Straw Mushroom cultivation50547.14Small-scale mushroom cultivation - 26
88.18.28.38.4Harvesting and post harvest handlingHarvestingFresh her reading66Useful addresses68Appendix 1: Formulas72Appendix 2: Air quality test73Appendix 3: Different origins of contamination74Appendix 4: Culture transfer in detail76Appendix 5: Formulas for compost78Appendix 6: Simple steaming systems80Glossary82Contents5
1IntroductionSince time immemorial people have gone into fields and woods topick edible mushrooms. Nowadays some species of edible mushroomscan also be cultivated as cash crops.Certain species are rather easy to grow while others demand more specific cultivation methods and temperature. In general the life cycle ofa crop is rather short (varying between some weeks and a few months)When the cropping cycle has been completed the spent mushroomsubstrate (SMS) can be used as a soil conditioner.Mushrooms contain a lot of proteins and minerals, several B vitaminsand are regarded as a healthy food or food supplement. Moreover, dueto certain chemical compounds valued for their medicinal properties,mushrooms gain more and more interest from the health food industry.In this Agrodok information is given on the cultivation of ButtonMushroom, which is consumed worldwide, and Rice Straw Mushroom, which is much valued in Asia. The specific cultivation methodsof each of these mushroom species have been described in separatechapters.Before deciding to grow either one of the species mentioned above itis wise to verify the following points:? Check the temperature range in section 2.3 to decide whether theclimate conditions are appropriate for cultivation.? Are you able to prepare the required compost? Which kinds of agricultural wastes (and in what amounts) are available for compostpreparation? Can mushroom spawn be purchased? If not, are you then sufficiently equipped to produce your own spawn? (See chapter 4)? Is there a demand for mushrooms in the vicinity and in the nearbymarkets? (See chapter 9)6Small-scale mushroom cultivation - 2
Figure 1: Button Mushroom (Agaricus spp.): closed button (left),mature (field) specimen (middle) and cross section (right)Figure 2: Rice Straw Mushroom (Volvariella spp.): egg stage (left),mature specimen (middle) and cross section (right)Introduction7
2Biology of mushrooms2.1FungiMushrooms (Fungi) are very different from plants. Plants can use energy from the sun directly through chlorophyll. Fungi lack this ability;they depend on other organisms for food. They absorb nutrients fromthe organic material in which they live. The living body of the fungusis not the fruiting body above ground, but it is the mycelium that isfound under ground or inside plants or wood.The mycelium consists of a web of miniscule threads, which are calledhyphae. When these hyphae are sexually compatible, the hyphae willfuse and start to form spores under specific conditions regarding temperature and moisture. The larger spore-producing structures (biggerthan about 1 mm) are called mushrooms.Scientific and colloquial names of mushroomsThe scientific names of mushrooms are often used in this Agrodok, asthey give rise to less confusion than colloquial names. For example,the name Button Mushroom applies to several different species ofmushroom, each with its own cultivation characteristics such as optimal temperature range, colour and growth rate.For mushroom growers, the most practical approach to the subject oftaxonomy is to rely on taxonomists. It is best to order strains from renowned spawn producers or culture collections.Fungus ecologyFungi depend on other organisms for their food. Three modes of livingcan be recognised:? Saprophytes: such as Rice Straw Mushrooms, which degrade already dead material.? Symbionts: living together with other organisms (especially trees)in a close, mutually beneficial relationship.? Parasites: fungi that live at the expense of other organisms.8Small-scale mushroom cultivation - 2
The mode of living has nothing to do with edibility: both edible andpoisonous mushrooms can be found in all three groups. This Agrodokonly deals with saprophytes.SaprophytesSaprophytic fungi need organic matter to decompose. In nature theywill grow on fallen leaves, animal droppings, or stumps of dead wood.Some are specialised in breaking down the hairs of animals, whileothers may decompose birds' feathers. Saprophytes break down complex organic structures of plants and animals in order to feed on them.2.2Life cycle of fungiFungi multiply by producing spores or through mycelial growth.When a spore settles in a suitable environment, it can germinate andbranch to form a mycelium. When two sexually compatible myceliameet, they may fuse to form a secondary mycelium, which is capableof forming fruiting bodies.Mycelial growth and spawnIn edible mushroom cultivation no use is made of spores. Their genetic characteristics may differ from those of their parents. Moreover,it takes some time for mushroom spores to germinate, whereas otherfungi such as green moulds germinate and spread much faster.The mushrooms we want to grow as a cash crop must be able to colonise the substrate before other fungi or bacteria do so. To achieve this,pre-grown mycelium (free of any contaminants) of the desired mushroom species is inoculated on a sterile substrate. This material is referred to as spawn. Using spawn will give the cultivated mushroom anadvantage in growth over other fungi that have to grow from germinating spores.Spawn runThe mycelium will colonise the compost and use the available nutrients. This is commonly referred to as spawn run. When some nutrientsBiology of mushrooms9
run out, or when the weather changes, the mycelium will reach a different phase: the reproductive stage. A temperature of about 25 C isoptimal for the spawn run of most species. The environment can alsoenhance the growth of the desired mycelium: a high CO2 concentration is favourable for mycelial growth (but not for cropping).After having colonised the substrate, the mycelium is capable of producing fruiting bodies. The number and quality of the fruiting bodieswill depend on the environment.Figure 3: Life cycle of mushrooms in nature10Small-scale mushroom cultivation - 2
Figure 4: Life cycle of cultivated mushroom. Tissue cultures areisolated from a mushroom and propagated on a suitable substrate.Key factors to induce fruiting bodies are:? changing temperature? high humidity? deficiency of a nutrient? CO2 concentration in the air? light? physical shockThese factors differ from mushroom to mushroom. Most of thechanges that stimulate fruiting have a negative effect on the vegetativegrowth of the mycelium. Changes should therefore only be madewhen the mycelium has completely grown through the substrate. It isBiology of mushrooms11
actually the less favourable condition for vegetative growth that willstimulate the mycelium to fruit.Small primordia (initial fruiting bodies) will be formed at the beginning of the reproductive phase. Under the right conditions, these primordia will develop into fruiting bodies. Nutrients are transportedfrom the mycelium to the fruiting bodies by a steady moisture flow.Water has to evaporate on the surface of the mushrooms in order toallow the flow to continue. This explains why spraying too much water on maturing mushrooms or a too high relative humidity of the aircan spoil the crop.2.3Temperature ranges of cultivatedmushroomsChoose a species that fruits at temperatures near to your outdoor temperatures. This limits investments in climate control and reduces energy costs. As the table shows there are actually few species suited toreally tropical conditions. Some mushrooms currently cultivated attemperatures around or just below 30 C. are: Volvariella volvacea,and Agaricus bitorquis but most species prefer lower temperatures.Table 1: Mushroom species, temperature ranges (in C) for mycelial growth, optimal growth and fruiting, and techniques to be applied to the substrateMushroom species/ Common name TmgToptimal mgTfruitingTechniquesAgaricus bisporus10-32 20-2810-201Agaricus bitorquis25-31 3025-301Agaricus blazein.d.3020-251Volvariella Volvacea20-40 30-3530-321,2Tmg:The range at which the mycelium stays viable; the growth speed declinesat both high and low ends of this range.Toptimal mg:The optimal temperature range for spawn run.Tfruiting:Temperature range required for fruiting.Substrate preparation techniques:1 fermented and pasteurised substrate2 pasteurised substrate12Small-scale mushroom cultivation - 2
3Mushroom farmsSelecting a siteWhen selecting a site to build a mushroom farm one has to keep inmind that following points are essential:? availability of good quality substrate? availability of clean water? availability of labour? adequate transport of the product to the market.Farm layoutBefore planning the layout it is essential to decide whether compostpreparation will take place at the farm. If this is the case, keep in mindthat storage of basic materials as well as the composting site itselfshould be located as far away as possible from the growing rooms.It is equally important to know whether spawn will be purchased orprepared by the grower himself. In this case it is strongly advised thatthe spawn laboratory should not be located at the farm site at all, inorder to prevent contamination spreading from one unit to another.Temperature and ventilationGrowing rooms at a mushroom farm should provide adequate climaticconditions. In particular ventilation and temperature are essential toensure a reasonable production. In most western countries, mushroomgrowers make use of mechanical climate control but this requires highfinancial investments and therefore will not be treated in this booklet.To avoid high temperatures, more moderate temperature demandingmushrooms like Agaricus spp. are grown in caves or old tunnels. Or,the farm can be built at higher and thus cooler altitudes.As most low-cost growing houses are constructed from bamboo, woodand plastic, a simple way of obtaining temperature reduction is byspreading wet sand on the floors underneath the shelves in the grow-Mushroom farms13
ing rooms and by wetting the bamboo-leave mats on the roof and thewalls of the farmhouses.FloorsOften, low cost growing houses are built just on bare ground. It is better to have a slightly tilted, cemented or concrete floor. These floorscan be cleaned well and drain-water can flow out easily. Take goodcare that the drainage system of each room is not connected to anotherroom, as diseases can spread easily through the draining pipe.For the same reason it is wise to frequently collect waste and contaminated material and to have them destroyed immediately after collecting.Farm hygieneOn a mushroom farm, hygiene is of vital importance. Since chemicalcontrol of pests and diseases is not feasible in small-scale mushroomcultivation, the only preventive measure is hygiene, and to some extent disinfection. This goes for a spawn production unit, the site forsubstrate production, the incubation rooms as well as for the production units.Farm locationTherefore checking a suitable site for a mushroom farm is very important. The surroundings of a farm should be clean and free from possible contamination from insects, moulds etc. This means that building anew farm close to other mushroom farms should be avoided. Insectsand diseases from these farms could easily spread to the new farm.If possible separate the various operation units of the farm.The spawn laboratory should be separate from the growing site. Thegrowing rooms ought to be separated by closed (plastic) walls to keepthe different stages of cultivation apart. As a matter of fact no incubation or spawn running should take place in the same room where themushrooms are harvested.14Small-scale mushroom cultivation - 2
Debris, contaminated bags and spent mushroom substrate must be removedimmediately from the rooms and from the farm itself, preferably to a place faraway.All these measures are necessary to avoid pests such as flies and mitesas well as diseases spreading from these waste dumps. If the spentmushroom substrate is to be used for gardening soil, it should betransported as soon as possible and not be stored at the mushroomfarm.Figure 5: An example of a sophisticated farmhouse unit/growingroom with air lock and racks with shelvesMushroom farms15
Figure 6: An example of a low-cost mushroom shed made fromplastic with bags placed on the floor16Small-scale mushroom cultivation - 2
4Spawn productionThe mushroom propagation material (“seed”) is generally referred toas spawn.4.1Availability of spawnThe availability of good quality spawn is a limiting factor for mushroom cultivation in many developing countries. Customs’ bureaucracy,high shipping costs and the difficulty to keep the spawn cooled duringtransport, often hinders imports. It might therefore be necessary forthe mushroom grower to produce his own spawn.If good quality spawn of the desired mushroom species can be obtained at areasonable price, it would be wiser to concentrate on the mushroom growingprocess. If this is not the case, spawn will have to be produced or multipliedby the mushroom grower.The complete procedure of spawn production involves preparation ofthe medium, filling the test tubes or Petri dishes and sterilising them,inoculation with mycelium and the process of inoculating larger containers with this cultureBasically, spawn production is nothing more than putting mycelium ofthe desired mushroom in suitable sterilised substrates under asepticconditions.In practice however producing spawn is not that simple. Suitablestrains from the required mushroom species have to be maintainedunder strict conditions to avoid degeneration. If this is not possible,tissue culture from a fresh and healthy mushroom should be used forspawn production. In addition the total spawn production process requires very high standards of hygiene. It is for that reason that one hasto make sure that the spawn production room is kept meticulouslyclean in order to avoid any contamination.Spawn production17
Figure 7: From tissue culture to crop - various steps in mushroomcultivationSpawn production of Agaricus spp. in particular, is rather complicated. Fromthat point of view it is highly recommendable to buy spawn from a reliablespawn producer.Only in the case that good quality spawn is not available for a reasonableprice the grower should choose to produce his own spawn.18Small-scale mushroom cultivation - 2
Spawn production unitThe minimal requirements for a spawn production unit are:? laboratory equipment such as Petri dishes, test tubes, scales, alcohol, flame? sterilisation unit (pressure cooker, autoclave)? sterile environment: Inoculation Box or Laminar Air Flow cabin? incubation roomThis equipment is commonly available in hospitals, research stationsand universities.The raw materials include:? ingredients for media preparation? pure culture or fresh mushroom of the desired mushroom speciesstrain? spawn containers (such as bottles or plastic bags)In countries lacking mushroom production, spawn may be obtained from a renowned spawn producer, a university or a research station at the start of aproject.For addresses of spawn producers see Useful Addresses.4.2Clean environmentsA clean environment is absolutely essential to spawn production. Inparticular whenever the containers with sterilised media need to beopened this must be done under aseptic conditions. The air carriesnumerous contaminants, which easily infect the sterilised media. It istherefore necessary to use special cabinets and inoculation rooms forperforming the handling and the preparation of the (tissue) cultures.(For an air quality test see Appendix 2)Spawn production19
Inoculation roomsThe interior of the inoculation room should consist of nonbiodegradable materials. All the surfaces should be smooth and easyto clean. Shelves should be designed in such a way that the floor beneath can be cleaned easily.Shelves are typically made ofmetal or Formica. UV light, to beswitched on during non-workinghours, will help to destroy contaminants.Inoculation cabinetsThese simple inoculation cabinetsare widely used all over theworld. They can be constructedcheaply from locally availablematerials. The front glass panecan be opened to fill the cabinetwith the sterilised media. The inside is to be disinfected by cleaning with a 10 % Clorox solution, a2% Formalin solution or 70%ethyl alcohol.Figure 8: A simple homemadeinoculation cabinet showing afront glass pane that can beopened and holes (with clothsleeves attached) for handlingpurposesTake care when using chemicals. Some of them are poisonous and/or irritating t
The first Agrodok on ‘Small-scale mushroom cultivation’, Agrodok no. 40, describes the technique of mushroom cultivation on substrates that only need heat treatment. Certain mushroom species however, like the Rice Straw Mushroom (Volvariella spp.) and the Button Mushroom (Agaricus spp.) c
ORGANIC MUSHROOM CULTIVATION MANUAL 3 What makes up a Mushroom 1. Cap: the top part of the mushroom that grows upward.When fully grown, mushroom caps will spread out like an umbrella, e.g. the Straw Mushroom, Ch
equipment to produce mushroom spawn for rural development projects. In the long run, the ARC's lab space can be used to produce low-cost mushroom spawn for mushroom cultivation projects. The following are short protocols for the production of nutritive agar, mushroom spawn, and mushroom-growing substrate. A. Agar medium for oyster mushrooms
into Shiitake-growing techniques, and we don't have to wait for the wind anymore. In fact, Shiitake is the second most produced mushroom in the world, following the common button mushroom. Shiitake Mushroom Cultivation 2011 INTRODUCTORY GROWER’S Cultivation of shiitake mushrooms is a fairly simply process. This guise will help you plan
07. Sample Menu Recipes Salads 08. Anti Pasta Salad 09. Asian Spinach Salad 11. Italian Mushroom Salad 12. Peppy Pasta Salad 14. Shaved Mushroom Salad Entrees 15. Mushroom and Avocado Quesadilla 16. Veggie Flatbread 18. Broccoli Mushroom Cheddar Hand Pie 19. Mushroom Omelette 21. Veggie Qu
Small-scale mushroom cultivation 4 Contents 1 Introduction 6 2 Biology of mushrooms 8 2.1 Fungi 8 2.2 Fungus ecology 8 2.3 Life cycle of fungi 9 2.4 Temperature ranges of cultivated mushrooms 12 3 Mushroom farms 14 3.1 Farm layout 14 3.2 Farm hygiene 17 4 Spawn production 18 4.1 The starter culture 20
4. Mushroom spawn, commonly referred to as mushroom "spore," is planted and cared for in such a way as to achieve maximum production. (Note: Mushroom growers in Thailand rarely complete steps 1, 2 and 3 as the PDA, mother spore and spawn of the commonly grown mushroom varieties
required to start mushroom production are the following: growing room: UGX 800 000 (USD 219.12); and solar dryer: UGX 700 000 (USD 191.73). 2.2 Mushroom market prices: dried mushroom: UGX 30 000 (USD 8.22) per kg; and fresh mushroom: UGX 8 000 (USD 2.19) per kg. The costs, prices and exchange rates mentioned in this practice .
hubungan antara asupan asam folat dengan kadar Hb dengan nilai p 0,64. Kata Kunci : asupan fe, asupan folat, kadar hb, tb paru . Abstract . Tuberculosis pulmonary can lead to various metabolic disorders and system disturbances in the body, one of which is synthetic disorder of Hemoglobin levels. Some nutrients which can influence the synthetic of Hemoglobin levels are iron (Fe) and folic .
