Initial Sessions - SAGE Publications Inc
05-Delucia.qxd4/6/20066:01 PMPage 87CHAPTER 5Initial SessionsChildren and adolescents typically (like most of us) come to the firstsession of a psychoeducational group with conflicting emotions: someexcitement and enthusiasm mixed with apprehension and anxiety. It iscritical at this point for group leaders to use behaviors in the categories of ExecutiveFunctions and Caring to help students acclimate to what is expected of them ingroups and identify specific behaviors to help them get the most out of the groupexperience. A little bit of anxiety is not a bad thing.The analogy of test anxiety is useful in describing the power of groups andcan be shared with beginning group members as a metaphor. If students are notanxious at all about a test, they may not study for the test and they might fail. Onthe other hand, students may study for a test but get so anxious when it is time totake the test because of the negative things that they tell themselves (e.g., I amdumb, stupid, I don’t know the material) that their anxiety may interfere with recallof the material and they may also fail. In the case of student test-taking behavior, amoderate level of anxiety seems most helpful. There is enough anxiety to motivatethe student to study but not enough anxiety to interfere with remembering whatwas studied. Effective group work is similar in that students need to have a littleanxiety in order for them to be motivated to try out new behaviors and learn different skills, but the anxiety should not be so overwhelming that it prevents themfrom attending the group and/or participating.In this chapter, activities will be described to help group members connect witheach other, and to provide information to lessen the anxiety. It is helpful to note theparallels between group stages and relationship development. When people firstmeet, they are a little hesitant to share and tend to be polite. As the friendship develops, people begin to act a little more naturally, perhaps sharing more of their positive and negative emotions, behaviors, and reactions. Strong friendships developwhen friends are able to be who they are, expressing both positive and negativeemotions, making mistakes, and giving honest feedback. For group leaders, it isimportant to observe where group members have trouble with the tasks inherent ineach group stage. This may predict where they may struggle in relationships as well.87
05-Delucia.qxd4/6/20066:01 PMPage 8888——LEADING PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL GROUPS FOR CHILDRENIdentification of these difficulties and interventions to teach specific skills is amajor responsibility of the group leaders. Some children and adolescents easilyconnect to each other (a task of the initial stage) but have a harder time expressingnegative emotions and giving honest feedback (the tasks in the middle stages). Forothers, the tasks of terminating, saying goodbye, and acknowledging how othergroup members have helped them are more difficult.Regardless of the length of the group, the first session must be devoted to theestablishment of ground rules and goals for the group, introduction of members toeach other, and explanation of the purpose of the group. It is also helpful to includesome review of important topics discussed in the first session as part of the openingand review in the second session. This chapter will discuss the initial stage of group,focusing on major tasks, therapeutic factors, and leadership behaviors. Possible pitfalls of initial sessions and examples of activities that may be used are also included.Goals and TasksThe first sessions are organized around getting group members to know eachother and identifying of the focus of the group. It is recommended that at least twosessions be introductory sessions, although with a shorter group (fewer than8 sessions), one session may be all that can be allotted. The major goals of initialsessions are described, followed by a general outline for a first group session.Introduce Group Members to Each OtherEven though in a school setting potential group members may often know eachother, it is still important to spend some time having them introduce themselvesand self-disclose something that casual contact in school would not indicate. Inaddition, it is important to recognize that some students may have already developed interactional patterns with each other that are not positive or will not contribute to a safe and caring group environment. Thus, one of the goals in an initialsession is to help students interact both positively, and potentially differently, fromhow they have typically acted toward each other outside of group. One way to dothis is to emphasize unique aspects that each child or adolescent brings to groupand how each will contribute in the group. From the very beginning, it should beemphasized that the rules of interaction within this group may be different fromthose in other places in which they normally interact, such as in the classroom (e.g.,group members are not expected to raise their hand when they wish to talk) or onthe playground (e.g., bullying and name calling are not allowed in this group).An initial icebreaker should include each group member’s name to make surethat everyone knows names (and how to pronounce them correctly). A number ofactivities ask group members to state their name and make some kind of selfdisclosure. The self-disclosure may be rather superficial (e.g., something that makesme happy . . .), but it establishes the norm that in this group, self-disclosure isexpected. For example, each student introduces himself or herself, and then repeatsthe names of those who have already introduced themselves (to reinforce their
05-Delucia.qxd4/6/20066:01 PMPage 89Initial Sessions——89names) and their disclosure. Such a system encourages students to disclose soonerrather than later simply so that they don’t have to repeat as many names. It is oftenhelpful for the group leader to go first to set the tone for the activity and model thekind of self-disclosure desired. In one icebreaker, group members are asked to statetheir name along with a feeling that begins with the same letter as their first name.I would say, “My name is Janice and I am a little jittery today about starting thisgroup.” Associating the feeling with the student may help to remember the name.Such an activity also reinforces the group norm of self-disclosure, particularly offeelings, and allows the group leader to link members together, emphasize universality, and also to address initial anxiety directly within the group. If I began this activity, I would disclose my first name, and because group leaders typically wouldn’t dothis in a group in the schools, I would acknowledge this discrepancy as part of howwe may sometimes act differently in group than at other times and places in school.For adolescent groups particularly, if there is a strong need to connect with them, Imight tell them it was OK for them to call me by my first name in the group, againemphasizing how we would interact differently within the group, and also the collegiality and importance of working together.Introduce Group Members to thePurpose and Structure of the GroupOnce group members have introduced themselves, it is important to talk abouthow the group works and what will make this group safe. The major topics includehow groups work, ground rules, the role of the group leader, procedural information, and typical interventions and activities. Much of what group leaders discusswill have already been introduced to group members in previous contacts (screening or preparation sessions) verbally and sometimes in writing. The examples ofhandouts for the preparation sessions in Appendix K have been worded so thatmost children and adolescents should be able to understand what is being said andinclude a general explanation of how groups work and the role of the leaderGroup members should be informed in the first session, as well as in screeninginterviews and preparation sessions, when the group will meet, for how long, andwhere. Specifics such as how they will get to the group (e.g., a pass will be sent, ateacher will bring them, the school counselor will pick them up, whether they shouldenter the counseling room or wait in a waiting area, etc.) should also be reiterated.A brief summary of how group will work should focus on problem solving, roleplaying, and giving feedback to each other as ways to learn and practice new behaviors, along with a description of specific activities related to group goals that will beused. The role of the group leader is best described as a facilitator of the group withthe job of keeping members on task, introducing relevant topics and activities, andhelping members to work together. Leaders should also emphasize that group members will be the experts on themselves and the ones who need to evaluate whichinterventions and skills work best for them. It is also sometimes useful to explain thestructure of the group session—opening, working, processing, and closing—so thatthe group members are aware of and anticipate the transition between topics andactivities. My favorite example of elementary students internalizing and anticipating
05-Delucia.qxd4/11/200610:09 PMPage 9090——LEADING PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL GROUPS FOR CHILDRENthe structure of the group session is the second grader who said to me, “I thinkwe need to move on to processing now. We only have 7 minutes left.” Providingthe structure of a group session for students serves as a cognitive organizer; insome ways, you have given them the questions that will be asked on the test (duringprocessing). They just need to find the answers in the working part of the session, soas part of that, group members may be consciously asking themselves, “What amI learning?” “What skills seem to work best for me?” “How am I feeling as I’m doingthis new behavior?” All of these questions are good for students to consider.There is a poem titled “Remember” that emphasizes how group members canlisten to each other, not give advice, and help members to find the answers and theirown solutions.“Remember . . .We are here to listen . . .not to work miracles.We are here to help people discover what they are feeling . . .not to make feelings go away.We are here to help a person identify their options . . .not to decide for them what they should do.We are here to discuss steps with a person . . .not to take the steps for them.We are here to help a person discover their own strength . . .not to rescue them and leave them still vulnerable.We are here to help a person discover they can help themselves . . .not to take responsibility for them.We are here to help people learn to choose . . .not to make it unnecessary for them to make difficult choices.We are here to provide support for change!!!”—AnonymousThe initial session should also include a discussion of ground rules to ensuresafety of the group members and help make the group productive. Discussion,rather than lecture, is to be emphasized. The goal here is for group members to create the guidelines for a successful group so that they take ownership of rules and sothat the ground rules are stated in their own words. The analogy of the swimmingpool and how pool rules are necessary for everyone to be safe often works well.Students could even begin by stating the rules posted for swimming pools and thentranslate them into the rules for their group. For example, one person at a time onthe diving board could be translated into one person speaks at a time, and noroughhousing could be translated into everyone should be respectful. It is oftenhelpful to write (or have group members write) the guidelines on a blackboard ornotepad. The list of ground rules can be displayed each time the group meets as aconcrete reminder. The group leaders can add or clarify any ground rules that arenecessary that group members do not mention.As a follow-up to the initial discussion of ground rules and to reinforce them, anactivity that could be used in a later session is to have the group members create abanner with the name that they want to call their group on the top, the group
05-Delucia.qxd4/6/20066:01 PMPage 91Initial Sessions——91guidelines written by the members as the center, and each of the group members’names or symbols around the edges. The banner can then be displayed prominentlyduring each group session and referred to as needed. Making decisions aboutthe group name, how the rules should be worded, and how the banner should becreated helps group members to begin to work together, communicate with eachother, and decide how to handle disagreements.Nonnegotiable ground rules such as confidentiality and how interactions willoccur (only respectful comments, only one person talks at a time) should be discussed in the screening interviews and presented in writing to children, adolescents,and their parents whenever possible, and then emphasized again in the first session.Typically, students will bring up the topic of confidentiality, and the group leaderscan add more details related to limits of confidentiality. These are typical groupguidelines: Be on time Attendance Everyone is expected to be here each session. Let the leaders know beforehand if you will miss or be late Frame this as the group will miss you and worry about you if they don’tknow where you are. Sometimes, other group members worry that theymight have offended a member in the previous session by something theysaid if that person doesn’t show up for the next group session Confidentiality What is said in group, stays in group You can talk about what you learned but not how you learned it (e.g., “Irealized that I do get angry but don’t tell people,” not “I realized I don’t tellpeople how angry I am when Alisha told me in group that I wasn’t talkingto her that day”) Limits of confidentiality for the leader include when someone is going tobe harmed (self or other) or as required by a court of law Be respectful of others One person talks at a time No name calling It is OK to disagree and for others to express different opinions Share reactions to what is happening to each other Use “I” statements Take risks Participate Share your reactions and feelings Try new behaviors in group Try new behaviors outside of groupAnother important issue that often comes up, and is related to confidentiality,is how group members will greet each other outside of group. This is an importanttopic to discuss because each member needs to decide what he or she wants to say
05-Delucia.qxd4/6/20066:01 PMPage 9292——LEADING PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL GROUPS FOR CHILDRENand whether he or she wants to be acknowledged by others. Sometimes, adolescentswill say, “Don’t say ‘hi.’ My friends will ask how I know you and I don’t want totell anyone I am in this group.” It is important for them to say what they want tohappen as an expression of their assertiveness; also, for group development, this isanother task that requires communication, negotiation, and decision making. It isalso important to discuss what Yalom calls “out of group socializing.” Group members should be up front about whether they are friends with others in the group orsocialize with them to some extent. People take risks in groups, and if one membersuddenly sees two other group members eating lunch together, that member maywonder if they are talking about him or her. If group members are clear in thebeginning about their relationships (e.g., we ride the bus together, swim together,eat lunch together), there may be less suspicion that confidentiality is being brokenif everyone knows about the relationships. It is still wise for group leaders to remindmembers at critical times about the importance of confidentiality and even say totwo friends, “It may be hard not to talk about what happened this week. If you havethoughts or feelings, bring them to group next week. Breaking confidentialitywould be very harmful to the trust of this group.”There are two other ground rules that are optional but may be useful at differenttimes. One is an invitation for group members to “try out the group,” usually for atleast three sessions. The first session is often not a good example of how groupswork; group members’ anxiety is high, and there is a very high level of structurebecause of the information that needs to be provided, so there is less group memberinteraction than in other sessions. Group members are asked to attend the first threesessions to get a sense of how groups operate and how they might participate.Related to the first option is the second ground rule that asks group members tosay goodbye to the group if they are going to leave for any reason before the groupends. This allows the group some closure but also sometimes allows the group leaders an opportunity to resolve a conflict in group. For instance, if a group membersays to a group leader outside of group, “I’m not coming back anymore because Sueis always mean to me,” the group leader now has the opportunity to help that groupmember bring the issue to the group and resolve it. If the group member is unwilling, he or she still has to come to group and say goodbye. Group members will askabout the reason, and again, this may provide a chance to resolve the conflict.Identify Individual and Group GoalsInitial sessions should include a discussion of the goals of the group followed bya discussion of individual goals for each group member. Even young children canunderstand and participate in such discussions. They need to know that they will befocusing on identifying and discussing certain topics and themes. They can alsoidentify specific issues for them (either on their own or through pregroup screening,assessment, and interviews) that they would like to work on or change during thecourse of the group. Typical goals for a children-of-divorce group might be, “I don’twant to feel so caught in the middle between my Mom and Dad,” “I don’t want tofeel guilty when I am with one parent,” or “I want to feel less sad when I think aboutmy parents splitting up.” Typical goals for an adolescent self-esteem group might be,
05-Delucia.qxd4/6/20066:01 PMPage 93Initial Sessions——93“I want to be more realistic about my strengths and weaknesses,” “I want to feelbetter about my body,” or “I want to express my feelings more clearly to people.”Goal setting in both individual and group work for children and adolescents isan area that has often been ignored or underutilized. Goal setting is a process ofidentifying goals based on the assumption that the more specific the goals, the morelikely their attainment. It is most likely to improve task performance when the goalsare specific and appropriately challenging, feedback is provided to indicate progressin relation to the goal, rewards are given for goal attainment, the manager or experimenter is supportive, and goals assigned are accepted by the individual. Lockeand Latham’s (1990) qualitative meta-analysis and O’Leary-Kelly, Martocchio, andFrink’s (1994) quantitative meta-analysis both strongly supported the use of individual goal setting with task/performance groups. Goal setting was associated withenhanced performance because it mobilized effort, directed attention, motivatedstrategy development, and prolonged effort over time.“Writing it [goals] down is about clearing your head, identifying what youwant, and setting your intent. Writing things down helps people understand whatthey want and become proactive in achieving one’s goals” (Klauser, 1997, p. 1).The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of attitude change (Petty & Cacioppo,1986) has been applied extensively to counseling interventions (Heesacker, Conner,& Prichard, 1995). “Elaboration” is defined as the ability to think about an issue andis theorized to increase the chances of attitude change occurring. In turn, attitudechange is assumed to influence behavior directly. Writing down goals facilitatesthoughtful a
other and identifying of the focus of the group. It is recommended that at least two sessions be introductory sessions, although with a shorter group (fewer than 8 sessions), one session may be all that can be allotted. The major goals of initial sessions are described, followed by a general outline for a first group session.
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