Internationalisation, Higher Education And The Growing .
ELT Research Papers 17.02Internationalisation, higher education and thegrowing demand for English: an investigationinto the English medium of instruction (EMI)movement in China and JapanNicola Galloway, Jaroslaw Kriukow and Takuya Numajiri
ELT Research Papers 17.02Internationalisation, higher education and thegrowing demand for English: an investigationinto the English medium of instruction (EMI)movement in China and JapanNicola Galloway, Jaroslaw Kriukow and Takuya Numajiri
ISBN 978-0-86355-862-7 British Council 2017 Design /H03510 Spring GardensLondon SW1A 2BN, UKwww.britishcouncil.org
ContentsAbout the authors. 2Abstract. 3Context and background to the project. 4The growth in EMI. 4Driving forces behind EMI policies. 4The effectiveness/impact of EMI. 6Benefits. 6Challenges. 6Research. 9Research focus, data collection and analysis methods .10Data collection.10The aims of the study.10The setting.10Research design.12Analysing the data.13Quantitative analysis.13Qualitative analysis.13Ethics and limitations.13Findings and discussion.14Questionnaire results.14Interview results.21Focus groups results.27Implications, applications and recommendations.32Implications.32Approaches to EMI.32Driving forces behind EMI policy and motivation.32Attitudes towards Appendix A.39Appendix B.39Appendix C.39Contents 1
About the authorsNicola Galloway is a lecturer in Education (TESOL)at the University of Edinburgh, where she teachescourses on the second language teaching curriculumand global Englishes. Her main research interests arein the pedagogical implications of the global spreadof English. Nicola is co-author of an academic text onglobal Englishes, with Routledge. Recent publicationsinclude a research monograph with Routledge onglobal Englishes, language attitudes and ELT. Shealso has an upcoming monograph with CambridgeUniversity Press on global Englishes and ELT.Jaroslaw Kriukow has recently obtained a PhDunder the supervision of Dr Nicola Galloway andDr Joan Cutting. He earned his MSc in TeachingEnglish to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) fromthe University of Edinburgh. His research interestsinclude global Englishes, ‘non-native’ (note that in thisreport, the terms ‘native’ and ‘non-native’ are placedin inverted commas to acknowledge the problematicnature of these terms) English speaker identity andmigration studies.Takuya Numajiri is a PhD student at the University ofEdinburgh. His PhD, which is supervised by ProfessorCristina Iannelli and Dr Tom Macyntire, focuses onfactors affecting mathematics achievement ofprimary school students in St Lucia. Before embarkingon his PhD, he worked for the Japan InternationalCooperation Agency (JICA) research institute.He is passionately committed to improving thequality of education for all.2 About the authors
AbstractThe globalisation of English has seen an increasein English education and education through English.Universities around the globe, including those innon-anglophone contexts, are part of this trend,offering programmes in English, despite having a‘non-native’ (note that in this report, the terms ‘native’and ‘non-native’ are placed in inverted commas toacknowledge the problematic nature of these terms)English-speaking staff and student body. English asa medium of instruction (EMI) – the use of English toteach subjects in countries where English is not theofficial language – has become a growing global trend.This has implications for the use of English as a linguafranca (ELF) in the academic domain and for teachingpractice. The study reported here aims to explorethe EMI phenomenon in higher education in Japanand China. Questionnaires, interviews and focusgroups with staff and students provide insights intothe differing approaches to, driving forces behind, andattitudes towards EMI. It responds to Dearden’s (2014:2) call for a ‘research-driven approach whichconsults key stakeholders at a national andinternational level’ by providing insights on staffand student perceptions. The empirical and criticalexamination of the rapid expansion of EMI in Japanand China provides initial insights to act as a platformfor further research and also staff training. The studyalso raises questions as to whether approaching EMImonolingually is the best way forward. The reportconcludes with a range of practical suggestions fordifferent stakeholders, including staff, students,materials writers and policymakers.Abstract 3
Context and background to the projectThe growth in EMIThe global spread of English has seen an increasein importance placed not only on English languageeducation throughout the world, but also on educationthrough English. Recent years have witnessed theinternationalisation of universities worldwide, and thishas become a priority for higher education institutes(HEI). HEIs are in competition to attract internationalstudents and are keen to internationalise theircurricula and develop a global presence. This takesmany forms, including internationalisation policies,setting up branch campuses in other countries,staff and student exchanges, collaborative degreeprogrammes and courses and initiatives to recruitinternational students and staff. Further, as HEIs in‘non-native’ English-speaking countries make effortsto internationalise and strengthen their globalcompetitiveness, there has been an increasedfocus on establishing – and extending – Englishmedium instruction (EMI) courses and programmesfor non-language subjects. In fact, EMI has becomesomewhat of a ‘galloping’ phenomenon, nowconsidered ‘pandemic in proportion’ (Chapple,2015: 1). It has been described as being ‘the mostsignificant trend in educational internationalization’(ibid 1) and also as somewhat of an ‘unstoppable train’(Macaro, 2015: 7).EMI has been defined as ‘The use of the Englishlanguage to teach academic subjects in countriesor jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of themajority of the population is not English’ (Dearden,2014: 2). Courses and programmes are gatheringmomentum at an unprecedented rate. Initial growthwas predominantly in Europe, where EMI programmesat European HEIs increased by 1,000 per centbetween 2001 and 2014 (Wächter and Maiworm,2014). However, it has become a global phenomenonand is rapidly gaining popularity in Asia. In Japan,for example, there was a five per cent increase inJapanese HEIs offering EMI programmes from 2008to 2010, constituting 29.2 per cent of all undergraduateprovision (Chapple, 2015). In 2010, of 135 HEIs acrossmainland China, 132 had run EMI courses/programmesby 2006, averaging 44 courses per institution (Wu etal, 2010, cited in Lei and Hu, 2014). In addition to anincrease in bilingual and EMI programmes, there hasbeen an increase in joint programmes that awarddegrees from foreign universities, as well as theadoption of English textbooks for some disciplines(Lei and Hu, 2014).4 Context and background to the projectThis increased role of English in HEIs in ‘non-native’English speaking contexts has resulted in a numberof changes. Not only is it changing the linguisticlandscape of these institutions, but many institutionsnow seek to hire international faculty who teach inEnglish and this is increasingly a major criterion inhiring decisions. The number of EMI courses is alsooften used to determine the quality of an institution’seducational provision and to determine governmentfunding and rankings. There is also increasedpressure on faculty to publish in English in internationaljournals. Many HEIs also require students to takeat least some EMI classes in order to graduate.Driving forces behind EMI policiesIn order to understand the foundations on which EMIprogrammes are based, it is important to examinethe driving forces behind their establishment.An HEI may decide to deliver content in Englishfor a number of reasons. These include: gaining access to cutting-edge knowledgeand increasing global competitiveness to raisethe international profileincreasing income (and compensating forshortages at the domestic level)enhancing student and lecturer mobilityenhancing the employability of graduates/international competenciesimproving English proficiencyreflecting developments in English languageteaching (ELT) using English as a neutral language offering EMI for altruistic motives.
Gaining access to cutting-edge knowledge andincreasing global competitiveness to raise theinternational profileEMI is closely related to the overall movement tointernationalise higher education. Offering EMI isviewed as a way to access cutting-edge knowledgeand contribute to a ‘brain gain’. It can help attractinternational students and faculty, thus raising theinternational – and the research – profile, of aninstitution. Moving up domestic and internationalrankings can help with publicity and attract studentsand staff. It can also help secure funding, in additionto enhancing graduate employability. EMI also aidsthe internationalisation of curricula by fosteringinternational partnerships through exchangeprogrammes, degree-conferring programmesand initiatives like faculty exchanges.Increasing income (and compensating for shortagesat the domestic level)By removing language barriers, EMI programmescan be a useful way of generating income and cancompensate for shortages at the domestic level insome contexts, particularly in places where domesticenrolment is decreasing. They open up new sourcesof revenue, improving the income base throughtuition fees from international student recruitment(Wächter and Maiworm, 2014). Some institutionsalso charge domestic students higher fees to enrolin EMI programmes.Enhancing student and lecturer mobilityEMI provides opportunities for student and facultymobility. Such mobility can help attract talentedstudents, who may stay on to become researchersand/or faculty in their respective HEIs, thuscontributing to the aforementioned ‘brain gain’and raising the research profile of the HEI. Theycan also generate income through tuition fees.Enhancing the employability of graduates/international competenciesEMI has been adopted by many HEIs to enhancethe employability of their graduates in both domesticand global markets. It can help foster interculturalcompetence through mixing with students fromdifferent countries and, therefore, enrich learning.Such competencies are seen to be attractive forthe increasingly internationalised labour market.With globalisation, and the global spread of English,many governments see a need for the educationof an international population and knowledge of asubject area in one’s own language is often seen tobe insufficient.Improving English proficiencyThe growth in EMI is also related to the increaseddesire to improve the English proficiency of a country’scitizens. English has become a language of prestige.EMI policies are related to government objectivesto develop national human capital that can speakEnglish. ‘English as a global language is now a factorthat needs to be taken into account in its languagepolicy by any nation state’ (Spolsky, 2004: 9) andmany nations see English skills as being anindispensable competency and key to theirmodernisation and global competitiveness.Reflecting developments in English languageteaching (ELT)Developments in English language teaching (ELT)towards more communicative and student-centredmodels have also been influential in the EMI movement.In East Asia, for many years, the preferred method oflanguage instruction was grammar translation, whichentailed having a student directly translate sentencesfrom his or her first language into the target language.Although this method continues to be widely used,Communicative language teaching (CLT) has gainedconsiderable ground around the globe. This has ledto an increased focus on teaching in English andexposing students to as much authentic English aspossible, which has contributed to content-basedapproaches in English-language classrooms aroundthe world – seen as being an important way to providestudents with authentic target language input.Using English as a neutral languageEnglish is often used as the medium of instruction,given its perceived neutral position in multilingualenvironments such as East and Southern Africaor India.Offering EMI for altruistic motivesThe growth in EMI programmes may also berelated to an altruistic motive, i.e. to contributeto the improvement of the developing worldby providing high-level education for students(Wächter and Maiworm, 2014).Context and background to the project 5
The effectiveness/impact of EMIChallengesThere are both top-down and bottom-up perspectivesof the EMI movement. While it has been criticised bysome for creating social inequalities and negativelyinfluencing the national language(s) in some societies,many students and staff desire EMI due to the manybenefits it can offer.However, there are also a number of challengesin relation to EMI. The aforementioned positiveoutcomes are not guaranteed and there is a fearthat a lack of planning can lead to unrealisticexpectations. Careful planning is required whenconsidering embarking upon, or perhaps expanding,EMI. Some of these challenges and possible sideeffects include:BenefitsThe perceived benefits include: English proficiency in addition tocontent knowledgeintercultural understanding and globalawareness/citizenship enhanced career opportunities staff employment.English proficiency in addition to content knowledgeFor many, EMI can be seen to kill two birds withone stone, giving students a chance to increase theirEnglish proficiency skills and enhance their academicprogress in other subjects at the same time. It is seento create a favourable learning environment, whichgives extensive exposure to the target language andopportunities for meaningful use of it to negotiate thecurricular content, thus leading to better acquisition.Intercultural understanding and globalawareness/citizenshipEMI can also provide an opportunity to make foreignfriends, thus providing intercultural dimensions andother learning opportunities. Mixing with internationalstaff and students can promote international andcomparative understanding, which can also enhancestudents’ employment opportunities.Enhanced career opportunitiesPerceived labour-market value is often astrong motivating factor for students to join EMIprogrammes (DeWit, 2011). Students often viewthese courses as beneficial for their future careeror educational
in the pedagogical implications of the global spread of English. Nicola is co-author of an academic text on global Englishes, with Routledge. Recent publications include a research monograph with Routledge on global Englishes, language attitudes and ELT. She also has an upcoming monograph with Cambridge Unive
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